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CAREI > Current Projects > Block Scheduling

Research & Resources - Resources by Topic (page 2)

Leadership/Principals

Through individual interviews, the administrators identified benefits and problems of the block schedule. They generally indicated that the modified accelerated block positively impacted instructional, student, and teacher issues.

Data was gathered through multiple instruments and interviews. To assess perceived leadership behaviors, Gorham’s instrument was used. The Mach IV Scale instrument was used to assess socialized and personalized charismatic characteristics. The Board of Education and the teachers’ perceptions were determined through the use of the Moles instrument. Individual interviews of one board member, one principal, and a teacher from each of the five sites refined and identified important aspects of the information gathered from the three questionnaire instruments that all participants completed. This research identified characteristics that are beneficial for high school principals to exhibit; and, therefore helpful in selection of future principals needed to adopt new curriculum and implement it successfully.

Vawter, David H. Ed.D. (1998). The Changes Associated with the Implementation of Block Scheduling in American Secondary Schools. This paper was presented to the faculty of the University of Virginia.
Forty-six principals in thirty-two states were surveyed to determine the changes in their schools that could be associated with the implementation of a block schedule. The principals were asked if their school had experienced changes in academic achievement, student attendance, at-risk students, student behavior, school climate, and variation of instructional strategies among teachers.

Middle School

Beaver, Melanie The Effects of a Language Arts Block on Student Achievement ERIC.

This 1993-4 study examined the effect of block scheduling on language arts and reading scores at an Indiana middle school. Significant gains were noted in both.

Curry, Janice; Griffith, Julia; Washington, Wanda; and Zyskowski, Gloria. ERIC. Title I Middle Schools Evaluation. 

The Austin Independent School District in Texas adopted the middle school concept in 1987-8. To make middle schools more responsive to students, a number of changes, including block scheduling, were initiated. Teachers and principals were surveyed for their perceptions.

DeRouen, Dana A. Maybe It's Not the Children: Eliminating Some Middle School Problems Through Block Support and Team Scheduling. Clearing House v71 n3 p146-48 Jan-Feb 1998.

Argues that the eight-period school day actually causes many of the discipline and retention problems found in middle schools. Suggests four steps educators can take to eliminate some middle-school problems.

Gable, Robert A., and Manning, M. Lee In the Midst of Reform: The Changing Structure and Practice of Middle School Education. Clearing House v71 n1 p58-62 Sep-Oct 1997. 

Discusses current middle school reform efforts and the need to change the structure and practice of middle schools. Examines teacher collaboration, block scheduling and curricular/instructional accommodations for special needs students.

Georgiady, Nicholas P. and Romano, Louis G. Focus On: Successful Characteristics of a Middle School. 1992; 16p. 

Noting that many middle schools do not pay sufficient attention to the emotional, physical, and social development of their students, this booklet presents characteristics of successful middle school programs, as recognized by scholars in the middle school movement. Each characteristic is accompanied by an explanation of the "what and why," and a further elaboration on its use. Seventeen characteristics are listed and explained:

1. learning
2. team teaching
3. block time
4. self-contained classrooms
5. guidance services
6. creative, exploratory and enrichment experiences
7. personalized student evaluation
8. independent study
9. basic skill repair
10. community relations
11. student services
12. auxiliary staffing
13. social experiences
14. physical experiences and intramural activities
15. continuous progress
16. a multi-material approach
17. flexible schedules

Hackmann, Donald G. Improving School Climate: Alternating-Day Block Schedule. Schools-in-the-Middle; v53 n3 p28-33 Sept 1995.

Examines the implementation of an alternating day schedule in middle school. It is suggested that block scheduling provides an effective instructional alternative to the traditional six- or seven- period format, creating a relaxed atmosphere while decreasing stress and improving attitudes of both students and teachers. Blocks provide a gradual transition to a developmentally appropriate environment for middle-school students.

Lounsbury, John H. Personalizing the High School: Lessons Learned in the Middle. ERIC.

The experience of middle-school reformers during the past 30 years has shown that administrative/organizational changes are more easily achieved than changes in people. Using teaming, block scheduling, and other middle-level approaches to personalize high schools and make them more relevant may help today’s adolescents regain feelings of purpose, curiosity and optimism.

Murdock, Linda A: et al. Horace' s Fridays. ERIC EJ514698. Educational Leadership Nov 1995 p37-40. 

On Fridays, students at one middle school spend all four team periodswith one teacher as they pursue intensive, independent quarterly learning projects in either science, math, social studies, or English. Evaluation showed improved student engagement, independent learning, thinking skills, and time management.

Rettig, Michael D.: Colbert, Chris K. Redesigning the School Day: A User-Friendly Schedule. Perspectives in Education and Deafness v13 n4 p2-3,9 Mar-Apr 1995. 

Describes implementation of block scheduling by a middle school for deaf and blind students. Longer class periods on alternating days expanded teachers’ opportunities to enhance individual learning styles.

Schroth, Gwen. Fundamentals of School Scheduling. 1997. Technomic Publishing Company, Inc., 851 New Holland Ave., Box 3535, Lancaster, PA 17604 ($34.95). 131 p. Document Not Available from EDRS. 

The ability of the school administrator to schedule teachers’ and students’ time so that each receives the most from each school day has become an essential skill. This book has been prepared for school administrators at the elementary and middle school levels who need appropriate management techniques for scheduling.

Southern Regional Education Board, Atlanta, Ga. Raising the Bar in the Middle Grades: Readiness for Success. ERIC.

Details the consequences of students not being ready for high school and explains why students are not ready. Recommends the creation of small, personalized communities for learning, as well as team teaching and providing students with guidance and advice. The benefits of block scheduling are analyzed.

Williamson, Ronald . Scheduling the Middle Level School to Meet Early Adolescent Needs. NASSP Journal: 22091-1537. 68p. Available from NASSP, 1904 Association Drive, Reston, VA.

Building and implementing a master schedule at the middle level, one of the administrator's most critical tasks, can create opportunities for or place harriers in the way of effectively serving students. This monograph offers suggestions for developing a master schedule and models for scheduling flexible blocks of time, including the flexible block-time schedule. This updated version incorporates the most current best practices for providing flexible schedule that promote student achievement.

Planning And Evaluation

Adams, Don C and Salvaterra, Mary E. Block Scheduling: Pathways to Success. 196 p. 1997. Technomic Publishing Company, Inc., 851 New Holland Ave., Box 3535, Lancaster, PA 17604; phone: 717-291-5609; toll-free: 800-233-9936; fax: 717-295-4538; e-mail: marketing@techpub.com.

Document Not Available from EDRS. Block scheduling and intensive or extended-time scheduling have been appearing in high schools across the United States. This guidebook is designed to help each school find the best route to achieve this organizational change. The book’s premise is that structural change in schools is not sufficient to create meaningful educational improvement. Change at the individual level must accompany structural change. The guidebook draws on the authors’ experiences with 5 schools and 6 school districts, and presents a roadmap for restructuring.

Buckman, Daniel C.: And Others. Block Scheduling: A Means to Improve School Climate.

Describes how two Orlando, Florida, high schools enhanced student success by implementing community-generated restructuring plans. Block scheduling helped improve attendance and grade point averages. School climate was enhanced in areas of safety, success, involvement, commitment, interpersonal competence, and satisfaction.

Cawelti, Gordon. Restructuring Large High Schools to Personalize Learning for All. ERS Spectrum, v11 n3 p17-21 Sum 1993.

This article asserts that besides helping to personalize learning, such restructuring elements as designing smaller house plans, advisory systems and block schedules can help create a healthy competition among quality schools within a district.

Cawelti, Gordon. High School Restructuring: What are the Critical Elements?  NASSP bulletin, v79 n569 p1-15 Mar, 1995.

This 1993 survey of 3,380 high school principals found that, although 10-15% of U. S. schools are being restructured, few are employing the same key elements (performance standards, block scheduling, instructional technology, community outreach, authentic assessment, and interdisciplinary curriculum).

Corley, Ed. Teacher Perceptions Regarding Block Scheduling: Reactions to Change. ERIC. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Mid-Western Educational Research Association, October 18, 1997.

A study of teacher perceptions regarding a proposal to adopt block scheduling was done at a small-city high school located in a predominantly rural county. Lack of communication was the central theme in the resistance to the proposal. Given this resistance, the proposal was delayed for further study.

Davis-Wiley, Patricia: And Others. Block Scheduling in the Secondary Arena: Perceptions From the Inside. ERIC.

Briefly overviews the history and types of block scheduling. Presents findings of a study in two large Tennessee high schools that implemented block scheduling. Administrators and teachers alike preferred the block scheduling over traditional schedules.

Delany, Marcia; Toburen, Laura; Hooten, Becky; and Dozier, Ann. Parallel Block Scheduling Spells Success. ERIC. Educational Leadership, v55 n4 p61-63 Dec-Jan 1997-8.

Teachers at two Georgia schools developed a parallel block-scheduling plan that allows for whole-class instruction, direct-instruction miniclasses, and enrichment labs for all students. Success depended on matching creative, resourceful teachers to the enrichment lab positions. Over the past two years, standardized reading and math test scores have risen significantly.

Guskey, Thomas R. and Kifer, Edward. Evaluation of a High School Block Schedule Restructuring Program. Apr.1995; 21 p.

This paper describes an interim evaluation of the Block Schedule Restructuring Program at Governor Thomas Johnson High School in Frederick, Maryland. (90 instructional days). The evaluation is based on the first years and a half of program implementation. Student performance on various achievement tests and final course grades have not varied much, but the scores of African American students on the Maryland Functional Tests and scores on Advanced Placement Tests have markedly improved. Student daily attendance and dropout have not changed, but there has been a dramatic reduction in student behavior problems. Perceptions of both students and faculty members regarding the block schedule program are overwhelmingly positive, with nearly 70% of students and 95% of faculty indicating they prefer the new 4-period day.

Hackman, Donald G. Ten Guidelines for Implementing Block Scheduling. Educational Leadership, v53 n3 p24-27 Nov 1995.

Argues that planners should use a systems approach, secure superiors’ support, understand the change process, involve all stakeholders, consult outside resources, brainstorm alternatives, examine budgetary implications, plan faculty in-services, include an evaluation component, and celebrate successes.

Hamdy, Mona and Urich, Ted. Perceptions of Teachers in South Florida Toward Block Scheduling ERIC. NASSP Bulletin, v82 n596 p79-82 Mar 1998.

This study at two metropolitan high schools tested the perceptions of 100 teachers on block scheduling. Teachers felt that the 4x4 left too many time gaps for teaching foreign language, English, and math and mainly benefited advanced students. They also felt that class sizes need to be reduced.

The January 1996 issue of Horace, Documenting Whole-School Change in Essential Schools.

Gives some interesting lists of measures that schools can use to document progress in improving school climate, student achievement, and teacher work life. Other issues include: May 1996 "The Arts and Other Languages: From Elective to Essential," March 1996 - "Developing Curriculum in Essential Schools," September 1996 - "Networks and Essential Schools: How Trust Advances Learning."

Lonardi, Emilie M., Anatomy of an Educational Failure. ERIC. School Administrator v55 n3 p28-31 Mar 1998.

An administrative team member/restructuring facilitator analyzed the failure of block-scheduling reform in a small suburban district. Key factors obstructing success were fear of change, propagandizing of data, and a culture of complacency. She argues these problems could have been avoided by increased training and community leadership.

Lybbert, Blair. Transforming Learning with Block Scheduling: A Guide for Principals. Corwin Press, Inc. (245 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA $29.95 cloth, 16.95 paper) 1998.

This guide was designed to help school leaders determine if block scheduling can improve their schools and provide instructions for implementing scheduling changes. Included are sample schedules for various types of block scheduling. Bibliography.

Matthews, Joseph L. Alternative Schedules: Blocks to Success? NASSP-Practitioner, v24 n1 p1-8 Oct 1997. National Association of Secondary School Principals, 1904 Association Drive, Reston, VA 20191-1537; phone: 703-860-0200; fax: 703-476-5432; World Wide Web: http://www.nassp.org.

Secondary school administrators must carefully consider the ramifications of a proposed alternative scheduling plan before proceeding with implementation. The first article in this newsletter presents findings from a study that compared data from two groups of schools (one group with a 4 X 4 block plan and the other with a trimester plan) to data from a group of schools that followed a traditional schedule. Six guidelines are offered for the successful implementation of an alternative schedule:

1. involve all members of the school community
2. employ a researcher and/or program evaluator
3. do not become the defender of one kind of scheduling plan
4. keep communication open among all parties
5. consider extensive staff development on instructional strategies
6. be creative and innovative

The second article describes the experience of two high schools that took steps to ensure a smooth transition-Springfield Township High School, located in Erdenheim, Pennsylvania (a 4 X 4 block plan) and Hononegah Community High School, in Rockton, Illinois (a 7 X 1 extended period). Five figures are included. (The first article contains 7 references). (LMI)

Pisapia, John and Westfall, Amy Lynn. Alternative High School Scheduling, Student Achievement and Behavior. Research report for the Metropolitan Educational Research Consortium, Richmond, VA, 1997.

This report presents results of an analysis of student achievement and behavior data from 12 high schools. Students in semester block schedules experienced greater increases in overall GPA than those in alternating block schedules. Both teachers and students reported that learning in block has more focus on concepts than facts, more depth, and more problem solving. Verbal scores rose more than math scores.

Queen J. Allen and others. The Road We Traveled: Scheduling in the 4X 4 Block. NASSP Bulletin, v81 n588 p88-99 Apr 1997.

An evaluation of the 4x4 block used in three North Carolina high schools elicited strong support from teachers, students, and parents. Schools planning to implement this model should review D. G. Hackman's guidelines covering faculty input, feedback procedures, training opportunities, teacher fatigue, holidays, classroom monitoring, modified course offerings, and adjusted graduation requirements.

Reid, William M., The Administrative Challenges of Block Scheduling. ERIC. School Administrator, v53 n8 p26-8, 30 Sep 1996.

Based on his experience with the Copernican block scheduling plan used in British Columbia secondary schools, a principal identifies the administrative challenges of using the block and suggests ways to address them. Involving stakeholders and developing monitoring plans helps ensure success.

Salvaterra, Mary E. and Adams, Don C. Implementing Block Scheduling: A Concern-Based Model of Change. Paper, 1998. ERIC.

This study followed the principals of 12 schools as they engaged in planning for a structural change using a concerns-based model of change. Effective principals provide continuous communication of goals and ongoing feedback, identify teachers' needs and concerns in each phase, and target resources accordingly.

Scroggins, Gary V.; Karr-Kidwell, P.J. Implementation of Block Scheduling in a Four-Year High School: A Literary Review and a Handbook for Administrators, Teachers and Parents. ERIC.

This paper argues that today’s high schools face problems of cultural diversity, varying student learning styles and a growing public perception that high schools do not adequately prepare their graduates. It extensively reviews the literature on block scheduling and in the handbook presents strategies for building support for change.

Shortt, Thomas L. and Thayer, Yvonne. What Can we Expect to See in the Next Generation of Block Scheduling? NASSP Bulletin, v79 n571 p53-62 May 1995.

Before attempting Block Scheduling reforms, some issues must be addressed, including information retention, transfer students, advanced placement offerings, elective, coordination of teacher and student schedules, and cost effectiveness. There are problems surrounding academic pacing, staff development needs, and time's interaction with other factors such as climate, empowerment, and governance.