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Research & Resources - Resources by Topic (Page 3)

Retention

Dempster, F.N. and Farris, R. (1990). The Spacing Effect: Research and Practice. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 23(2), 97-101.

This article presents the case for spaced presentations of a unit of information as a way to yield better learning than massed presentation. Although the article does NOT address block scheduling specifically, it should be pointed out that this technique can be used under both traditional and block schedules.

Semb, G.B. Ellis, J.A., and Araujo, 3. (1993). Long-term memory for knowledge learned in school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85(2), 305-316. 

This article explores long-term retention of knowledge measured after 4 months and 11 months after a term ended. The study looked at retention in three different ways: differential forgetting effects as a function of level of original learning, retention for recall test items vs. multiple choice items, and retention as a function of type of learning.

Semb, G.B. and Ellis, J.A. (1994). Knowledge Taught in School: What is Remembered? Review of Educational Research, 64(2), 253-286.

This is a synthesis of literature on retention of knowledge taught in school. Some of the conclusions reached are: the amount retained declines quickly at first, then declines at a slower rate, or levels off (less than 10% loss within 4 weeks, less than 2% within 13 weeks, little change from 13 to 26 weeks); as degree of original learning increases, the rate of forgetting decreases; instructional strategies involving active learning rather than passive learning have resulted in dramatic differences in loss scores (after 12 weeks, 10% compared to over 40%, and, after 6 weeks, 0-1 3% compared to 18-54%).

Rural Schools

Southwest Region Schools, Dillingham, AK. Effective Rural Schools: A Model for Rural School Improvement. ERIC. 

An effective rural schools delivery model for small rural high schools was developed by teachers, parents, community members, and principals in a southwestern Alaska district. Content courses were offered in 135-minute blocks. The school year was restructured into three 12-week trimesters, each divided into one-week and 11-week periods. 

Thomas, Cheryl and O'Connell, Raymond W., Student Perceptions of Block Scheduling in a New York State Public High School. ERIC. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Northeastern Educational Research Association, 1997. 

This study examined rural high school students' perceptions of block scheduling. Students saw an increase in class discussions and group projects, felt block scheduled classes were more boring but less chaotic, and covered more material. They considered the opportunity for more discussion the primary benefit. Overall, students supported it.

Special Students

California Partnership Academics Handbook: A Guide to Success. ERIC. 

This report describes 12 features of a California Partnership Academy, including the use of block scheduling to enhance the success of at-risk high school students.

Gable, Robert A., and Manning, M. Lee. In the Midst of Reform: The Changing Structure and Practice of Middle School Education. Clearinghouse, v71 n1 p58-62 Sep-Oct 1997.

Discusses current middle school reform efforts and the need to change the structure and practice of middle schools. Examines teacher collaboration, block scheduling and curricular/instructional accommodations for special needs students.

Rettig, Michael D.: Colbert, Chris K. Redesigning the School Day: A User-Friendly Schedule. Perspectives in Education and Deafness, v13 n4 p2-3,9 Mar-Apr 1995.

Describes implementation of block scheduling by a middle school for deaf and blind students. Longer class periods on alternating days expanded teachers’ opportunities to enhance individual learning styles.

Trybus, Margaret A.; Li, Ranfen. Effects of a Partnership Academy on School and Career Success of At-Risk High School Students. Paper, 1998. ERIC.

Reports on a three-year Partnership Academy based on the California model at an Illinois high school. Block scheduling was one of four features of the experiment. Results showed favorable program effects for all indicators.

Vermillion, Tammie. Changes Special Education Teachers Make in the Transition from Traditional to Block Scheduling. Master's Thesis. 1998. ERIC.

This study examined the procedural changes that high school special education teachers make in their transition from traditional scheduling to block scheduling. Also, teachers' perceptions of the effect of block scheduling on the literacy skills of secondary students with special needs was examined. Teachers at a national special education conference and a random sample of special education teachers in Missouri were surveyed concerning their perceptions and experiences with traditional and block scheduling. Analysis of the 102 returned surveys found:

1. most schools had been participating in block scheduling for at least two years with one to two years of prior planning common among them
2. 50 percent of teachers believed that block scheduling had a positive effect on their students' literacy skills
3. most teachers reported that block scheduling allowed for more support services than the traditional schedule
4. over half reported changes in curriculum and instruction, such as a greater variety of classes and activities
5. 36 percent of teachers reported changes in special education paperwork
6. respondents identified advantages (such as more planning time) and disadvantages (limits of students' attention spans) of block scheduling
7. 64 percent of teachers preferred the block schedule.

The survey is appended. (Contains 30 references.)

Weller, Donald R. & McLeskey, James. Block scheduling and inclusion in a high school: teacher perceptions of the benefits and challenges. Remedial and Special Education, v21 n4 p209-18 Jul-Aug 2000.

A study involving seven special and seven regular educators examined the impact of the implementation of a block schedule on a successful inclusive high school program. Results indicated inclusion and block scheduling were complementary and mutually supportive aspects of school reform in this high school. (Contains references.)

Eisenberger, Joanne; Bertrando, Robert & Conti-D'Antonio, Marcia. Block scheduling and Inclusion--Meeting the Challenge. High School Magazine, v7 n7 p32-37 Mar 2000.

Effective principals realize that learning support-teachers can provide job-embedded staff development for general-education teachers. They build schedules allowing the kind of cooperative planning that makes inclusive block scheduling successful. Principals must also share control of the master schedule and support major changes in teaching practice.

Santos, Karen E. & Rettig, Michael D. Going on the block: Meeting the needs of students with disabilities in high schools with block scheduling. Teaching Exceptional Children, v31 n3 p54-59 Jan-Feb 1999.

Describes various forms of block scheduling at the high school level and offers guidelines for scheduling special-education courses. Stresses the importance of special and regular teacher communication and collaboration, the use of different instructional strategies during the longer blocks, and positive effects of block scheduling on student behavior and student/teacher relationships.

Conti-D'Antonio, Marcia; Bertrando, Robert & Eisenberger, Joanne.  Supporting students with learning needs in the block. Eye on Education, 6 Depot Way West, Suite 106,Larchmont, NY 10538; Tel: 914-833-0551; Fax: 914-833-0761 ($29.95).

This book demonstrates that block schedules provide opportunities for educators to address the needs of diverse student populations in general education classrooms. The inclusion of at-risk students and students with special needs into regular classrooms provides new challenges for educators, and block scheduling provides extended time for these students to process information in a connected curriculum rather than during fragmented periods of study. The first part of the book includes details for both content teachers and support teachers about how inclusion can work in a block-scheduled school. The six chapters are:

1. Introduction
2. Teaching Versus Coverage
3. Cooperative Planning Between Support Teachers and Content Teachers
4. Delivery of Instruction
5. Teaching Strategies
6. Assessment

The 12 appendixes focus on Goal Setting; Levels of Questions; Identifying Key Information; Understanding Information; Sustaining Attention and Concentration; What to Do Before and After the Test; Memorizing; Self-Advocacy and Self-Determination Strategies; Constructing for Knowledge; Reporting Progress and Accommodations; Organizing Time and Materials; and What to Do During the Test. (Contains references). 

Tenney, Mark G. The Effects of Block Scheduling on Students with Emotional Behavioral Disorders and/or Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder. Master's Thesis. 1999.

This study discusses the outcomes of a survey of 23 educators from 19 high schools on a block schedule in New Hampshire. Educators from each school were asked their perceptions of the effects of the block schedule on students identified as having emotional/behavioral disorders and/or attention deficit-hyperactivity disorders (ADHD) in comparison to the regular education students. The responses were concerned with the effect of the schedule on the special education students' level of performance. Educators were asked to delineate the positive and negative aspects of the block schedule. On average, regular education and vocational/technical teachers viewed the students with emotional behavioral disorders and/or ADHD as demonstrating no change or improvement in their performance while maintaining a satisfactory current level of performance. Administrators problems caused by dysphasia, causes, how it is treated, research that is and special educators saw a more negative effect. Special education teachers had concerns about the ability of students to sustain attention for a 90-minute period and stressed the need to structure the class time. (Contains 57 references.)