Homework Research and Policy:
A Review of the Literature
by Harris Cooper, Department of Psychology, University of
Missouri-Columbia
Data show that homework accounts for about 20 percent of the
total time the typical American student spends on academic tasks
. . . considering this fact, it is surprising how little attention
is paid to the topic of homework in teacher education.
 Homework
plays a significant role in education in the United States. According
to the National Assessment of Educational Progress, two-thirds of
9-, 13-, and 16-year-olds reported doing homework, and the percentage
was increasing (Anderson et al., 1986). Thirteen-year-olds reported
spending an average of about one hour daily on homework (Walberg,
1991). These data show that homework accounts for about 20 percent
of the total time the typical American student spends on academic
tasks.
Considering these facts, it is surprising how little attention
is paid to the topic of homework in teacher education. Most teachers
in the United States report that in education courses they discussed
homework in relation to specific subjects, but received little training
in how to devise good assignments, how to decide how much homework
to give, and how to involve parents.
Moreover, homework often causes a great deal of conflict among
teachers, students, and parents. Indeed, many doctors and family
counselors indicate that problems with homework are a frequent source
of concern when children experience medical problems (Cooper, 1991).
In this article I describe the findings of a review of research
on homework (Cooper, 1989). I examine the efficacy of homework as
an instructional method, develop a sequential model of the factors
that influence homework outcomes, and propose homework policy guidelines
for teachers, schools, and school districts (see also Cooper, in
press). The review was supported by the National Science Foundation
and included nearly 120 empirical studies of homework's effects
and the characteristics of successful homework assignments.
The Role of Research in Improving Homework Practices
American researchers have studied homework for over 60 years.
For example, Hagan (1927) compared the effects of homework with
the effects of in-school supervised study on 11- and 12-year-olds'
academic performance. The number and percentage of research
documents containing references to homework indicate that scholars
are more interested in homework now than ever before.
Researchers do not agree, however, on the advantages and
disadvantages of homework as an instructional tool. Although
more than 12 reviews of the homework literature were conducted
between 1960 and 1987, reviewers' conclusions differed considerably.
This variance is due partly to a lack of overlap in the literature
that reviews cover, to diverse criteria for inclusion of studies,
and to differing methods of synthesizing study results.
Defining Homework and Its Effects
I defined homework as "tasks assigned to students by school
teachers that are meant to be carried out during non-school
hours" (Cooper, 1989, 7). Omitted in this definition are
- in-school guided study,
- home study courses, and
- extracurricular activities, such as sports or student
newspapers.
The list of possible advantages and disadvantages of homework
is long and often surprising. These effects are given in Table
1. Among the suggested benefits of homework, the most obvious
is that it will increase students' retention and understanding
of the material it covers. Less directly, homework can improve
students' study skills and attitudes toward school and teach
students that learning takes place outside as well as inside
of school.
Homework has numerous potential nonacademic payoffs as well;
most of these involve promoting student independence and responsibility.
Finally, homework can involve parents and the broader community
in schooling, increasing their appreciation of education and
allowing them to reinforce students' achievement.
The possible negative effects of homework are perhaps
more interesting. First, some educators note that any activity
can remain rewarding only for a limited time. It follows that
if students are required to spend too much time on academic
material, they eventually will become bored with it. Second,
homework limits the time students can spend on leisure-time
and community activities that can impart important lessons,
both academic and nonacademic. Third, parental involvement,
however well-meant, often becomes parental interference. Parents
can confuse children if the teaching methods they employ differ
from those of teachers. Fourth, homework can lead to undesirable
behaviors such as cheating, either through copying of assignments
or receiving assistance with homework that involves more than
tutoring. Finally, homework could exacerbate existing social
inequalities. Students from lower-socioeconomic homes are likely
to have more difficulty completing homework than their more
well-to-do peers. Poorer students are also more apt to work
after school or may not have a quiet, well-lit place to do assignments.
A Model of the Homework Process
Table 2 depicts how and in what sequence numerous factors
affect the usefulness of homework. The process begins with three
factors-student characteristics, the subject matter, and especially
grade level-that determine the benefits of homework.
Characteristics of the assignment are important as well.
Homework assignments can be short or long, can have different
purposes (such as the practice of old material, introduction
of new material, integration of skills, or extension of the
curriculum), can be designed for individual students or whole
classes, and can be completed by individuals or groups. The
time and effort teachers take to develop an assignment also
varies.
When a student takes the assignment home, several factors
will affect how it is completed, including the student's other
time commitments, the home environment, and the involvement
of others.
Finally, what the teacher does with assignments when students
turn them in may affect homework's utility. Some teachers may
simply collect assignments, whereas others go over them in class
and provide written feedback, oral comments, or grades. Other
teachers may permit students to correct homework as part of
the learning process and even provide extra credit toward grades.
Is Homework Effective?
Three types of studies enable researchers to answer the question
of whether homework enhances students' achievement. The first
type of study involves comparing the achievement of students
who receive homework with students given no homework or any
other treatment to compensate for their lack of home study.
Of 20 studies completed since 1962, 14 yielded results favoring
homework, whereas six favored no homework. Most interesting
is the striking influence of grade level on homework's effectiveness.
According to these studies, the typical U.S. high school student,
14 to 16 years of age, in a class doing homework would outperform
69 percent of the students in a no-homework class, as measured
by standardized tests or grades. In junior high school, students
11 to 13 years of age, the average homework effect was half
this size. In elementary school, homework had no effect on achievement.
In another group of studies, researchers compared homework
with in-class supervised study. The performance benefits of
homework were generally about half what they were when homework
was compared with no treatment. Most significant in these studies
was the finding once again of a strong grade-level effect. For
elementary students, in-class study proved superior to homework.
In junior high, homework was superior, and in high school, homework's
advantage was greatest.
Finally, in 50 studies researchers correlated the time students
reported spending on homework with their achievement. Many of
these data were from state or national surveys. A total of 43
correlations showed that students who did more homework had
better achievement, whereas only seven correlations indicated
the opposite. Again, a strong grade-level effect was present.
For elementary students, the mean correlation between time spent
on homework and achievement was almost zero; for students in
middle grades it was r = +.07, and for high school students
it was r = +.25.
Interpreting the Size of Homework's Influence
In the previous section I discussed the effect of homework
across differing grade levels, types of outcomes, and content
areas. The outcomes of homework can also be compared with those
of other teaching methods. This allows the consideration of
homework in a wider educational context, thus permitting a more
accurate judgment of its value.
 Walberg
(1986) described results of 11 reviews of research on effects
of instructional methods and teaching skills on student achievement.
The instructional methods included individualized, special,
and cooperative learning; ability grouping; direct and programmed
instruction; advance organizers; higher-level cognitive questioning;
use of praise; use of pretests; and television watching. For
each strategy, Walberg calculated an effect similar to the one
I used previously (e.g., the average high school student doing
homework outperformed 69 percent of students not doing homework).
In comparison with these instructional strategies, homework's
effect on achievement can be described most accurately as above
average. That is, homework's influence fell about in the middle
of the 11 strategies. If grade level is considered, the relation
between homework and achievement of elementary school students
is comparatively small, but on high school students homework's
effect is large, relative to the effect of the other 11 instructional
techniques.
Another means of interpreting the size of an effect is to
compare it with the cost of implementing the treatment. Homework
is definitely a low-cost treatment. The most significant costs
involved in assigning homework would be (a) a slight loss in
instructional class time because time must be set aside for
dealing with homework, and (b) additional outside-class preparation
and management time for teachers.
Factors Affecting the Usefulness of Homework Assignments
In addition to studying homework's overall effectiveness,
researchers also have examined how variation in assignments
might influence their efficacy. One obvious question is whether
homework is more effective for some subjects than for others.
Based on the three sets of evidence just described, no clear
influence for subject matter can be found. Still, homework probably
works best when the material is not complex or extremely novel.
Another important concern is the optimum amount of homework.
In nine studies researchers recorded academic performance as
a function of increasing homework time. Elementary students'
performance did not improve when they spent more time on homework.
Junior high school students' achievement continued to improve
with increased homework until assignments took between one and
two hours a night. More homework than this was not accompanied
by improved achievement. In contrast, high school students'
performance continued to increase through the highest point
on the measurement scales.
Other findings were related to differences in homework assignments.
For example, there was considerable evidence that homework results
in better achievement if material is distributed across several
assignments rather than concentrated only on material covered
in class that day. Homework that requires students to practice
material already taught, as well as assignments meant to prepare
students for upcoming lessons, both proved beneficial. The few
(poorly designed) studies of parent involvement indicated that
giving parents a formal role in homework did not affect its
utility. The same was true for individualizing homework assignments,
which had a minimal effect on achievement but did significantly
increase the time teachers spent on homework-related activities.
Finally, I located no study in which researchers compared a
homework feedback strategy (e.g., grading, instruction, or evaluative
comments) with a no-feedback approach. Several studies involved
comparisons of differing feedback strategies; no approach was
clearly superior.
General Policy Guidelines
Based on results of research and over 100 other
articles, I developed homework policies for a representative
(or average) American school district. These are listed in tables
3.1, 3.2, and 3.3. Although the policies would have to be adapted
to any single district, they provide a good basis on which to
begin discussions.
My first recommendation is that coordinated policies should
exist at the district, school, and classroom levels. Some issues
that must be addressed at one level are unique to that level,
whereas others overlap.
Districts should offer a clear and broad rationale for assigning
homework, including why it is sometimes mandatory, as well as
general guidelines for the amount of how that should be assigned.
Schools need to provide more specific time requirements, coordinate
assignments between classes, and describe the role of teachers
and principals. Teachers should outline what they expect of
students and why.
Although I will not discuss the policies in detail, a few
underlying philosophical points ought to be made explicit. First,
elementary school students should be assigned homework, though
it should not be expected to improve their achievement. Rather,
homework should help young children develop good study habits,
promote positive attitudes toward school, and communicate to
students that learning takes place outside as well as inside
school. Thus, assignments to elementary students should be brief,
should involve materials commonly found in the home, and should
not be too demanding.
The academic function of homework should emerge in junior
high school. Its use as a motivational tool should not be ignored,
however. Thus, I advocate using both required and voluntary
assignments. The latter should involve tasks that are intrinsically
interesting to students of this age.
Teachers should never use homework as punishment.
Using it in this way communicates to students that schoolwork
is boring and aversive.
High school teachers can view the home as an extension of
the classroom. Homework that involves practice and review of
lessons previously taught and simple introductions to material
prior to its coverage in class is desirable. Assignments that
require students to integrate skills or differing parts of the
curriculum should also be common.
Regardless of students' ages, the formal role of parents
in homework should be minimal. Parents vary in interest, knowledge,
teaching skills, and time available. Clearly, parents of young
children should be more involved. In particular, they need opportunities
to express how much they value school achievement. Besides helping
their children to practice of reading, spelling, and math skills,
parents can express their interest by having contracts with
their children about study times, offering rewards for completed
assignments, or merely by signing homework before it is returned
to school.
I also advise that teachers individualize few assignments
within classes. Developing individualized homework demands considerable
teacher time and has few benefits. Teachers who teach the same
course to several classes that are progressing at different
rates might consider giving the same assignments to the top
students in the lowest class and the lowest-performing students
in the highest class.
Finally, most homework assignments should not be graded.
Teachers should not view homework as an opportunity to test.
Almost all students should complete assignments successfully;
thus, teachers should not differentiate much among performance
levels. Having students do homework out of fear of negative
consequences turns a situation ideal for building intrinsic
motivation ("I must enjoy this; I'm doing it and the teacher
isn't standing over me") into one that implies that the teacher
believes students need rewards or punishment in order to complete
assignments. Teachers should collect homework, check it for
completeness, and give intermittent instructional feedback.
This procedure shows that the teacher takes homework seriously
and that it is purposeful. The major purpose should be to identify
individual students' learning problems.
Homework for Students with Learning Disabilities
Much attention has been given recently to the use of homework
with learning-disabled students. When I surveyed studies of
homework conducted prior to 1986, I found few that included
students with learning disabilities. More research in this area
exists today, and a colleague and I recently reviewed this literature
(Cooper & Nye, in press). We wanted to determine how homework
practices and policies that produced positive outcomes for students
without disabilities might differ for students with disabilities.
First, we examined studies of the overall effectiveness of
homework for students with learning disabilities. This research
indicated that the generally positive effects of homework for
students without disabilities also should appear for students
with learning disabilities.
Nevertheless, the characteristics of successful homework
assignments for the two types of students are different. For
example, research has consistently shown that homework assignments
for students with learning disabilities should be brief, emphasizing
reinforcement of skills and class lessons rather than integration
and extension of class work. In addition, students who do not
possess certain minimum skills in an area may not benefit from
homework at all.
It is vital that teachers monitor homework assignments for
students with learning disabilities. Monitoring might involve
reviewing completed assignments promptly in class, rewarding
students for completeness and/or accuracy, and allowing students
to begin assignments in class so that teachers can make certain
that students understand assignments.
Parental involvement is essential for students with disabilities.
These students tend to have less developed self-management and
study skills than their peers, and their ability to study relies
more on the provision of a proper environment, both physical
and emotional. Students with learning disabilities may need
periodic rewards while they work on assignments or immediately
after completing assignments as well as more help in finishing
tasks. Research suggests that parents' involvement should be
prolonged rather than intermittent.
Summary
The relation between homework and student academic performance
is influenced heavily by grade level. The effects of homework
on elementary students appear to be small, almost trivial; expectations
for homework's effects, especially short-term and in the early
grades, should be modest. Homework should be viewed as one of
several methods teachers can use to show children that learning
takes place everywhere. For high school students, however, homework
can have significant effects on achievement. Indeed, relative
to other instructional techniques, and considering the minimal
costs involved in implementation, homework can yield a considerable
increase in academic performance at this level. Finally, homework
can have significant benefits for students with learning disabilities,
but its positive outcome is contingent on (a) teacher preparation
and planning; (b) assignments appropriate to the skill, attention,
and motivation levels of students; and (c) appropriate involvement
of parents.
Portions of this article were taken from "Synthesis of
Research on Homework," Educational Leadership, October 1989.
Used with permission from the Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development. Thanks are extended to Gail Hinkel for
editorial comments.
References on Homework
Anderson, B., et al. 1986. Homework: What do National
Assessment Results Tell Us? Princeton, N.J.: Educational
Testing Service.
Cooper, H. 1989. Homework. White Plains, N.Y.: Longman.
Cooper, H. 1991. Homework. Feelings and Their Medical
Significance 33 (2), 7-10.
Cooper, H. In press. The Battle over Homework: An Administrator's
Guide to Sound and Effective Policies. Newbury Park, Calif.:
Corwin Press.
Cooper, H., and B. Nye. In press. Homework research, policies
and practices: A review of the learning disabilities literature.
Journal of Learning Disabilities.
Hagan, H. 1927. The value of homework as compared with supervised
study. Second Yearbook, Chicago Principal's Club, 147-49.
Walberg, H. J. 1991. Does homework help? School Community
Journal 1 (1), 13-15.
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