Skip to Content

Title IX - Gender Equity

 

Whisenant, W. A. and P. M. Pedersen (2004). "Analyzing attitudes regarding quantity and quality of sports page coverage: athletic director perceptions of newspaper coverage given to interscholastic sports." International sports journal (West Haven, Conn.) 8(1): 54-64.

            The purpose of this study was to assess the perceptions that interscholastic athletic directors (ADs) held concerning newspaper coverage given to their athletic programs. The ADs (n = 244) perceived both the quantity and quality of coverage given to girls' sports to be significantly (p <.05) less than the coverage given to boys' sports and their programs as a whole. When comparing the perceptions based upon the gender of the ADs, males rated the coverage higher in all but one of the assessed categories. The results support established research regarding the existence of hegemonic masculinity within the institutions of sport and the media. 

Teasdale, J., S. Basson, et al. (2004). "Flowers & flames: letters to the editor." Running times (Wilton, Conn.)(313): 6;8.

            Readers' responses to articles on marathoner Patti Dillon, running with a dog, the education of running, the title IX debate and other topics. 

Simon, R. L. (2004). Fair play: the ethics of sport, Oxford, Westview Press, 2004, 256 p.           

Hawkins, J. (2004). "Professionally speaking." Golf world (Wilton, CT) 57(25): 44.

            Commentary on Michelle Wie's upcoming participation on the PGA Tour, including comments from PGA Tour players. 

Fields, S. K. (2004). Female gladiators: gender, law, and contact sports in America, Chicago, University of Illinois Press, 2004, 240 p.

            Examines legal and social battles over the right of women to participate with men in contact sports. Despite court rulings, many in American society continue to resist allowing women into sports traditionally defined as male territories. 

Butler, K. (2004). Fair play: the ethics of sport. (Review).           

Wielgus, C. (2003). "Olympic sports and college athletics." A.S.C.A. newsletter (Fort Lauderdale, Fla.)(7): 8-9.

            Discusses the impact of Title IX on the development of elite athletes for Olympic sports, and suggests that there should be a debate about the purpose of college sports. 

Tripp, E. (2003). "Sexual harassment in sports: how "adequate" is Title IX?" Marquette sports law review (Milwaukee, Wis.) 14(1): 233-255.

            Explores the applicability of Title IX to the context of the coach-athlete relationship. In order to avoid sexual harassment lawsuits, sport administrators must take a proactive role in preventing sexual harassment, by setting out clear policies regarding coach-athlete relationships. 

Sturm, T. J. (2003). Gender differences in career goals of intercollegiate athletes and in the perceptions of athletes and coaches about the decline in the percentage of female coaches, Thesis (M.A.) Ball State University, 2003; includes bibliography (leaves 48-50). Available from Kinesiology Publications (formerly Microform Publications), IIHSP, 1243 University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403-1243, USA, tel: 541-346-4114, fax: 541-346-0935.

            The purpose of this study was to investigate gender differences in reasons given by intercollegiate athletes for planning to enter or not enter the coaching profession. The reasons given by coaches and athletes for why the percentage of females in the coaching profession has declined was also investigated. In 2002, the number of female teams that were coached by women was 44% as compared to more than 90% prior to the enactment of Title IX. A questionnaire designed by George (1989) was revised and administered to Ball State University student athletes and head coaches. One t-test was calculated (p<.01). Frequency counts and percentages were used for data analysis. No statistically significant differences were reported by gender. There were differences in the frequency of responses. Information regarding why current athletes plan to enter or not enter the coaching profession can provide administrators, those hiring coaches, an advantage in increasing and/or maintaining the current female coaching population. 

Staurowsky, E. J. (2003). "Title IX and college sport: the long painful path to compliance and reform." Marquette sports law review (Milwaukee, Wis.) 14(1): 95-121.

            Overview of the long, arduous history of Title IX, culminating in the recent affirmation of Title IX's regulations and policy, by the United States department of Education. Highlights the disconnect between the goals of academic institutions and the commercial/professional interests of a billion-dollar industry 

Simon, R. L. (2003). Gender equity and inequity in athletics. Sports ethics: an anthology, Malden, Mass., Blackwell Publishing, c2003, p.240 253, Total No. of Pages: 14. J. Boxill.

            Investigates some of the major issues associated with gender equity in sport, with a particular focus on university and college sport in the United States. Describes concepts, conceptions and tests of equity, including the three-tiered test of the Office of Civil Rights (OCR). Discusses proportionality, interests and equity, and the ultimate issue of whether gender equity proposals constitute reform or revolutionary change. 

Samuels, J. and K. Galles (2003). "In defense of Title IX: why current policies are required to ensure equality of opportunity." Marquette sports law review (Milwaukee, Wis.) 14(1): 11-47.

            Outlines the long history of repeated, but failed, attacks on Title IX, including the Commission on Opportunity in Athletics itself. Demonstrates how wrestlers, football coaches, and other advocates for men's sports, have repeatedly attacked Title IX over the years, tried to persuade Congress to amend it, and tried to convince the courts to invalidate it. Includes, timeline (p.40-47) - Title IX history.

Rozum, K. (2003). "Staying inbounds: reforming Title IX in collegiate athletics." Wisconsin women's law journal (Madison, Wis.) 18(1): 155-177.           

Reynolds, G. (2003). "Further clarification of intercollegiate athletics policy guidance regarding Title IX compliance. (July 11, 2003) (Letter)." Marquette sports law review (Milwaukee, Wis.) 14(1): 1-4.

            From the Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights (OCR), clarification on Title IX requirements in intercollegiate athletic programs. In its original form, this letter is three pages long. 

Powers, T. (2003). "Women vs. men: a perverted Title IX strikes again." A.S.C.A. newsletter (Fort Lauderdale, Fla.)(10): 6-7.

            Discusses the impact of Title IX on men's collegiate athletics in the United States. 

Porto, B. L. (2003). A new season: using Title IX to reform college sports, Westport, Conn., Praeger, 2003, xiv, 245 p.: 24 cm.

            CONTENTS: Preface; [1] This season: the current state of college sports; [2] Seasons past: a brief history of college sports; [3] Seasons of debt: financial consequences of college sports; [4] Seasons of shame: academic consequences of college sports; [5] Seasons of pain: social consequences of college sports; [6] Seasons of hope: Title IX as a catalyst for change in college sports; [7] Seasons of promise: a participation model of college sports; [8] The new season begins: implementing the participation model; Index. In-depth view of the world of intercollegiate sport as it is and as it might be. Shows how colleges might retain threatened varsity programs and expand athletic opportunities for women, if they replaced the current commercial model with one that emphasizes participation. 

Popke, M. (2003). Taking the field: women, men and sports. (Review).           

Pemberton, C. L. A. (2003). "Wrestling with Title IX." Marquette sports law review (Milwaukee, Wis.) 14(1): 163-174.

            Many academic institutions are still "wrestling" with Title IX compliance. In this paper, Cynthia Pemberton, long-time advocate of gender equity in athletics, offers her personal and professional perspectives on Title IX compliance. Includes, Useful references - p.172-174. 

Parent, C. M. (2003). "Personal fouls. How sexual assault by football players is exposing universities to Title IX liability." Fordham intellectual property, media and entertainment law journal (New York) 13(2): 617-652.

            Case: Davis v. Monroe County Board of Education, 526 U.S. 629 (1999). Statute: Education Amendments of 1972, 20 U.S.C. 1681(a). 

Osborne, B. (2003). "Title IX in the 21st century." Marquette sports law review (Milwaukee, Wis.) 14(1): 141-162.

            Explores three recent developments in Title IX - the National Wrestling Coaches Association lawsuit, the Commission on Opportunity in Athletics, and the Mercer v. Duke University case. 

Oras, W. (2003). "Equally ineffective. (Letter)." Aquatics international (Los Angeles, Cali.) 15(6): 15.

            A coach of girls' sports comments on the unwelcome effects of Title IX. 

Nelson, M. B. (2003). Stronger women. Sports ethics: an anthology, Malden, Mass., Blackwell Publishing, c2003, p.273 288, Total No. of Pages: 16. J. Boxill.

            Discusses how stereotypes and sexist expectations prevent women from having a full sense of themselves as physical beings. Provides anecdotes illustrating how women acquire a sense of their personal power through athletics, proving that participating in sport or other types of physical activity can be seen as a feminist project. Describes the benefits of physical fitness for women, and the special female bonding that can occur among women engaging in team activity. Speculates whether the increased sense of self acquired through physical prowess has caused female athletes to be more assertive in all domains, from the willingness to sue for the right to participate in a male-dominated sport to the activism involved in Title IX suits. Discusses the possibilities of women translating their increased sense of physicality and strength into the willingness to discover their potential for physical aggressiveness when confronted by an attacker.

Mowrey, R. J. (2003). More than a game: one woman's fight for gender equity in sport. (Review).           

Moulton, J. (2003). Why everyone deserves a sporting chance: education, justice, and school sports. Sports ethics: an anthology, Malden, Mass., Blackwell Publishing, c2003, p.29 39, Total No. of Pages: 11. J. Boxill.

            This study attempts to answer several questions about gender equity in sports, including: whether equal resources should be provided for men's and women's teams; whether men and women should compete together or separately in certain sports; whether there are sports that should be exclusively for men or women; and whether rules of certain sports should be altered so as to foster equal opportunity. The author compares sports and education, arguing that just as access to education is necessary to participate in the cultural life of a nation, so is access to sporting opportunities. The author explains that education is seen as as being essential to all, while access to sports is not. She argues that the history of women's achievement since Title IX demonstrates that improved access results in improved achievement. The author then examines several proposals for improving equality of access, including allowing women to play more sports, changing the rules, changing the coaching style and adding new sports. She concludes that any changes which foster increased participation in sports by a larger number of people should be welcomed. 

Marburger, D. R. and N. Hogshead Makar (2003). "Is Title IX really to blame for the decline in intercollegiate men's nonrevenue sports?" Marquette sports law review (Milwaukee, Wis.) 14(1): 65-93.

            Recently, certain men's sports programs, particularly wrestling, have experienced sharp declines. Critics blame Title IX for these cuts to men's athletic teams, arguing that Title IX makes it economically impractical for universities with tight budgets, to operate men's non-revenue producing sports and provide for women's sports. This paper presents the argument that, cuts to men's sports are driven by profit-motivated athletic departments, and not by tight budgets. 

Lumpkin, A., S. K. Stoll, et al. (2003). Gender equity in sport. Sport ethics: applications for fair play. 3rd ed, Boston, McGraw Hill, c2003, p.183 204, Total No. of Pages: 22. A. Lumpkin.

            Discusses historical perspectives on gender equity and inequity in sport. Includes tables documenting trends in the gender of coaches of women's teams and athletic administration in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) member institutions. Includes seven cases and corresponding questions. 

Leland, T. and K. Peters (2003). "Title IX: unresolved public policy issues." Marquette sports law review (Milwaukee, Wis.) 14(1): 1-10.

            Ted Leland and Karen Peters, Co-Chairs of the Secretary's Commission on Opportunity in Athletics, delineate four major public policy issues surrounding Title IX. Comments on how these policy issues have been managed at Stanford University. 

Leland, T., C. Cooper, et al. (2003). ""Open to all": Title IX at Thirty. The Secretary of Education's Commission on Opportunity in Athletics. (February 28, 2003)." Marquette sports law review (Milwaukee, Wis.) 14(1): 1-70.

            Presents the final report on Title IX of the Secretary's Commission on Opportunity in Athletics, (Ted Leland and Cynthia Cooper, Co-Chairs). Four themes frame this final report: commitment, clarity, fairness and enforcement. Recommends that the department of Education reaffirm its commitment to equal opportunity for all men and women. This report is public domain, and is available on the Department of Education's website at: http://www.ed.gov 

Hueben, E. A. (2003). "Revolution, numbers, IX. The thirtieth anniversary of Title IX and the proportionality challenge." UMKC law review (Kansas City, Mo.) 71(3): 659-683.           

Heckman, D. (2003). "The glass sneaker. Thirty years of victories and defeats involving Title IX and sex discrimination in athletics." Fordham intellectual property, media and entertainment law journal (New York) 13(2): 551-616.           

Heckman, D. (2003). "Is notice required in a Title IX athletics action not involving sexual harassment?" Marquette sports law review (Milwaukee, Wis.) 14(1): 175-232.

            Reviews some preliminary matters on Title IX's application when sexual harassment id involved. Focuses on relationships between teachers and students, and between coaches and student-athletes, including the landmark Supreme Court decision, Gebser v. Lago Vista Independent School District. 

Griffith, C. C. (2003). "Comments on Title IX." Marquette sports law review (Milwaukee, Wis.) 14(1): 57-63.

            Heart of the Title IX problem is the financial pressure that college athletic directors come under to balance budgets and comply with federal law. Also contends that the issues raised in National Wrestling Coaches Ass'n v. Department of Education, can be solved by a more reasoned allocation of financial resources by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), which tightly controls scholarships, sets academic standards for student-athletes, and determines team structure. 

Goplerud Iii, C. P. (2003). "Title IX: Part Three could be the key." Marquette sports law review (Milwaukee, Wis.) 14(1): 123-140.

            History and background on Title IX, with a brief discussion and analysis of relevant, significant cases construing the Three-Part Test. Provides guidance on the use of Part Three by academic institutions, with suggestions for sources of support, data collection, and responses to test results. 

Epstein, A. (2003). Tilting the playing field: schools, sport, sex and Title IX. (Review).           

De Varona, D. and J. Foudy (2003). "Minority views on the Report of the Commission on Opportunity in Athletics, February 2003." Marquette sports law review (Milwaukee, Wis.) 14(1): 1-21.

            Donna de Varona, two-time Olympic gold medalist (swimming) and Julie Foudy, captain, U.S. national women's soccer team identify some problems with the Commission's process and final report; and request that the Secretary of Education, Roderick Paige include their Minority Report in the official records of the Commission's proceedings. This report is in the public domain, and is available through the Women's Sports Foundation at www.womenssportsfoundation.org 

Burk, M. and N. Plumly (2003). "Who owns sports? The politics of Title IX." Marquette sports law review (Milwaukee, Wis.) 14(1): 49-55.

            Titile IX has been contested, legally and politically, since its inception. The most politically charged rhetoric used by Opponents of Titile IX claims that it is a "quota system" for women's sports. 

Boxill, J. (2003). Title IX and gender equity. Sports ethics: an anthology, Malden, Mass., Blackwell Publishing, c2003, p.254 261, Total No. of Pages: 8. J. Boxill.

            In this study the author attempts to analyze the issues surrounding the integration of women into the traditionally male area of sport. The positive impact of Title IX is outlined, as are the negative effects of contending with institutional bias and the bias inherent in playing sports designed for male physical specifications. The author discusses competition, and the importance of women having access to the social advantages of sport, as well as the opportunities for self-development and self-expression which are provided by sport as a form of unalienated activity. She discusses means of providing women with access to sport, including promoting sports that emphasize female strengths, and the modification of standards, rules and equipment so as to facilitate access. The author goes on to discuss sex discrimination against female coaches and administrators as well as the way homophobia promotes male dominance in sport. She concludes that it is essential to promote gender equity in sport so that women too can have access to the personal and social advantages of this "significant social activity". 

Blake, M. C. (2003). Title IX compliance at the interscholastic level (9-12) involving participation patterns and sport offerings for Indiana high school male and female athletes, Thesis (M.A.) Ball State University, 2003; includes bibliography (leaves 28-29). Available from Kinesiology Publications (formerly Microform Publications), IIHSP, 1243 University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403-1243, USA, tel: 541-346-4114, fax: 541-346-0935.

            The purpose of this study was to investigate Title IX compliance at the interscholastic level, since the inception of Title IX in 1972. Specifically, the researcher was interested in the participation patterns and sport offerings of Indiana high schools for male and female athletes. Participants were 125 high school athletic directors from division 1A, 2A, 3A, 4A, and 5A schools in the State of Indiana. Athletic directors were administered an athletic survey which consisted of 44 questions that addressed the sport offerings and participation patterns for male and female athletes. Results showed that males were participating in more interscholastic sports than were females. This trend has existed for a very long time; however, the number of females participating has steadily increased since the passage of Title IX in 1972. The number of sports offered to both sexes was found to be equal, with an average of nine sports each. Opportunity was very important according to Title IX regulations. The selection of sports must effectively accommodate the interests and abilities of both sexes. 

Austin, B. (2003). Sport and gender in Canada. (Review).           

(2003). ""Further clarification" on Title IX issued." JOPERD The journal of physical education, recreation and dance (Reston, VA) 74(7): 13-14.

            Presents the text of the "Further Clarification of Intercollegiate Athletics Policy Guidance Regarding Title IX Compliance", which was issued by the U.S. Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights (OCR) on July 11, 2003. 

(2003). "No change to Title IX." Aquatics international (Los Angeles, Cali.) 15(8): 54;56.

            Reports that the Bush Administration has stated that it will not make any changes to Title IX.

Asher, K. (1996, February/March). Some are more equal than others. Is the new compensation structure at the University of Minnesota fair to all sports coaches? Coaching Volleyball, 18-21

Barr, C. A. (1996). Out of proportion. A Louisiana judge's ruling takes gender equity in a new direction. Athletic Business, 20 (8), 10; 14.

Curtis, M., Darley, D. F., & Grant, C. H. B. (1995). Swish parting thoughts. Gender equity: demise or reaffirmation?. Coaching Women’s Basketball, 9 (3), 54-55.

Daniel, M. L. (1995). Title IX and gender equity in college athletics: How honesty might avert a crisis. Annual Survey of American Law, 2, 255-318.

Donahue, J.C. (1999). The non representation of gender: school committee members and gender equity. Women & Politics, 20 (3), 65-81.

AB: This article analyzes the behavior and ideas of school committee members in Massachusetts and finds that women in this political context generally fail to substantively represent the interests of their own gender. While the literature on women political elites at the national and state levels suggests that increasing the number of women will increase the representation of women's political interests, the findings of this study indicate that increasing the numbers of women elected officials may not always lead to more representation for women. The study indicates the need for further research in different institutional contexts to determine why women's interests are represented in some governing bodies but not in others. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.

Duncan, D. G. (1996). Gender equity in women's athletics. University of Cincinnati Law Review, 64 (3), 1027-1055.

Fink, J. S., & Pastore, D. L. (1997). Gender equity? Differences in athletes perceptions of equity in sport. Journal of Legal Aspects of Sport, 7 (3), 130-144.

AB: This study was undertaken to determine student-athletes perceptions toward gender equity. A total of 161 NCAA Division IA student-athletes responded to a questionnaire regarding equity issues. To verify the subscale structure of the questionnaire, item-to-total correlations and internal consistency measures (Cronbach's alpha; K-R20s) were utilized. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVAs) were utilized to analyze the gender equity measures with three subgroups, female student-athletes, football players, and male student-athletes of nonrevenue sports. The results of the multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVAs) revealed significant differences in perceptions of gender-equity issues between the subgroups. Football players rated several areas significantly higher than female athletes and male athletes of nonrevenue sports. The assessment of student-athletes perceptions toward gender equity may assist athletic departments in determining which areas of their sports programs are equitable and, in turn, be utilized to develop strategies that promote equity.

Fink, J. S., Pastore, D. L., & Moore, D. (1997). Gender equity survey. Strategies, 10 (5), 8-9.

Greller, M.M., Cochran, R.S., Taylor, P.A. (1995). Measuring women's sport interest in response to Title IX. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 55 (Feb.), 47-59.

AB: A study was conducted to measure women's sport interest in response to Title IX of the 1972 Education Amendments to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 that requires that institutions meet women's sport interest in equal measure to men's. A sample of 307 men and 351 women was interviewed by telephone over a three-week period. Findings indicated that there is a significant difference in the interest women express in both competitive and recreational sport. Although women expressed less interest than men, the variance in interest explained is minute. The analysis revealed that 8.8 percent of the variance in interest in competitive sports and 10.2 percent of the variance in recreational sport is explained by the sport itself, demonstrating the relatively minor role of sex relative to the sports offered. No clear and reliable differences were identified in the different factor structures that described the sports of interest to men and women.

Henderson, J. (1995). Gender equity in intercollegiate athletics: a commitment to fairness. Seton Hall Journal of Sport Law, 5 (1), 133-163.

Hallmark, J.R., Armstrong, R.N. (1999). Gender equity in televised sports: a comparative analysis of men's and women's NCAA Division I Basketball Championship broadcasts, 1991-1995. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 43 (2), 222-325.

AB: This study compares the variety and frequency of camera shots and graphics in broadcasts of men's and women's NCAA Division 1 championship basketball games from 1991 to 1995. Hypotheses predict that broadcasts of women's games--in comparison to broadcasts of men's games--employ fewer camera shots and graphics, use camera shots and graphics of longer duration, and consume significantly less broadcast time. The data partially confirms the first two hypotheses but rejects the third.

Institutions must make gender-equity data available. (1996, October 28). NCAA News. 33 (38), 5; 16.

Judge, J, O'Brien, D, & O'Brien, T. (1995). Gender equity in the 1990's: an athletic administrator's survival guide to Title IX and gender equity compliance. Seton Hall Journal of Sport Law, 5 (1), 313-338.

Kaiser, D., Lindsey, D. (1996). Model for achieving gender equity provided by Clovis, California, school. National Federation News, 13 (5), 10-12.

Kane, M. J. (1996). Media coverage of the post Title IX female athlete: A feminist analysis of sport, gender and power. Duke Journal of Gender Law & Policy, 3 (1), 95-127.

Kent, J. (1996). Women in international sport: achieving gender equity. Canadian Association for the Advancement of Women and Sport, 45 (l).

NT: Also published in French under the title: Les femmes dans le sport international: sur la voie de l'equite des sexes; Available from: Canadian Association for the Advancement of Women and Sport and Physical Activity; 1600 James Naismith Drive; Gloucester, Ontario K1B 5N4; Canada; Tel: (613) 748-5793; Fax: (613) 748-5775; E-mail: wmnsport@magi.com

Lanke, K., & Sawyer, T. H. (1997). The impacts of Title IX on athletic programs across the country. Journal of Legal Aspects of Sport, 7 (3), 145-152.

Lehr, C. (1995). Equally unequal: male coaches of women's teams suffer inequities too. Athletic Business, 19 (10), 10;14.

Mathewson, A. D. (1996). Black women, gender equity and the function at the junction. Marquette Sports Law Journal, 6 (2), 239-266.

Naggi, J. (1995). Winning one for gender in Portland, Oregon. Coach and Athletic Director, 65 (4), 76-79.

Parks, J., Russell, R., Wood, P., Robertson, M., Shewokis, P. (1995). The paradox of the contented working woman in intercollegiate athletics administration. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 66 (1), 73-79.

AB: We investigated the paradox of the contented working woman among middle and first-line intercollegiate athletics administrators. In this paradox, women report lower salaries than men but express comparable job satisfaction. The sample comprised 143 women and 371 men in 106 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I-A institutions. Job satisfaction was measured with the Job Descriptive Index (Smith, Kndall, & Hulin, 1969) and Job in General (Ironson, Smith, Brannick, Gibson, & Paul, 1989) scales. Analyses revealed the existence of the paradox: women were paid significantly less, but were equally satisfied with their jobs. Neither gender was satisfied with promotion opportunities or pay, but both were highly satisfied with their jobs in general - another apparent paradox. The disproportionate number of male respondents raised questions about gender equity in athletics administration.

Shaw, P. (1995). Achieving Title IX gender equity in college athletics in an era of fiscal austerity. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 19 (1), 6-27.

AB: This article reviews the statutory background of Title IX and provides an analysis of three recent legal cases that address gender equity issues. Most specifically, the article examines three recent lawsuits, all initiated and decided after 1988 legislation reinvigorated Title IX. These cases involving Colorado State University, Brown University, and Indiana University of Pennsylvania illustrate the approach the courts are taking on gender equity and the practical difficulties of achieving gender equity in an era of fiscal austerity. The article examines the impact of other recent litigation arising out of Title IX and analyzes the gender equity strategy of the National Collegiate Athletic Association. The article concludes proposing a comprehensive game plan for Title IX compliance in today's fiscal climate by analyzing compliance factors, methods of achieving gender equity, and the economics and ethos of budget cutting.

Simon, R. (1995). Gender equity and inequity in athletics. In W.J. Morgan & K.V. Meier (Eds.), Philosophic inquiry in sport (2nd ed.). Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics Publishers, 293-304.

Smith, R. K. (1996). When ignorance is not bliss: In search of racial and gender equity in intercollegiate athletics. Missouri Law Review, 61 (2), 329-392.

Sparkman, T. (1996). Booster clubs can present problems with gender equity requirements: Florida high school has solution with all-sports booster club. National Federation News, 14 (1), 17-18.

Staurowsky, E. J. (1995). Examining the roots of a gendered division of labor in intercollegiate athletics: insights into the gender equity debate. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 19 (1), 28-44.

AB: The purpose of this article is to examine gender-based, systematic inequity in sport as reflected in the 1993 final report of the NCAA Gender Equity Task Force. Using a feminist, materialist perspective, attention is given to the identification of underlying ideological and structural frameworks within intercollegiate athletics as manifest in the report that support a gendered division of labor in which male athletes, particularly football and basketball players, are perceived as breadwinners, whereas female athletes are regarded as passive consumers. Further, an argument is advanced that these predestined economic roles for females and males in sport, when mediated by the pretense of an educational model of athletics, give rise to powerful assumptions about the profitability of intercollegiate athletic programs. Finally, a case will be made that those assumptions serve to maintain the gender order in sport while hindering a meaningful resolution to the gender equity issue.

Staurowsky, E. J. (1996). Blaming the victim: Resistance in the battle over gender equity in intercollegiate athletics. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 20 (2), 194-210.

AB: This article examines the May 9, 1995, U.S. congressional oversight hearing of the Office of Civil Rights and its enforcement of Title IX in athletic departments. Sage's 'blaming-the-victim' framework, used to study other persistent problems in intercollegiate athletics, was employed to analyze the testimony of witnesses at the hearing and position statements prepared by various men's sport associations prior to the hearing. An argument is made that the men's sport associations were successful in creating resistance to the enforcement of Title IX by convincingly representing male athletes as victims and females as victimizers prior to and during the hearings. Finally, a case is developed to suggest that long-term solutions to the problems associated with Title IX and gender equity exist only when an ideological shift occurs to allow for sport participation to be viewed as a basic human right.

Steen, B. (1995). Programming for who is not there. Journal of the International Council for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport, and Dance, 31 (4), 16-17.

AB: The Canadian Association for the Advancement of Women and Sport and Physical Activity (CAAWS) is a nongovernmental organization (NGO) working to "ensure that girls and women in sport and physical activity have access to a complete range of choices and opportunities and have equity as participants and leaders." This article touches briefly upon many ways in which CAAWS serves the sport community in areas of gender equity education, leadership initiatives, research, communication, and partnerships and liaison activities with other groups. Explored in more detail is work in the area of community initiatives, particularly a program called On the Move. This program has been designed to encourage non-active teenage girls to participate in fun-filled, supportive, low skill level, team recreational activity. It was implemented first as a pilot program in the province of British Columbia, and has since been expanded to three more of Canada's ten provinces. The pilot program illuminated some key points that are broadly applicable to programming for girls.

Tarkan, L. (1995, September). Unequal opportunity. The political climate being what it is, Title IX is under fire. Women’s Sports & Fitness, 17, 25-27.

Warner, R.L., Steel, B.S. (1999). Child rearing as a mechanism for social change: the relationship of child gender to parents' commitment to gender equity. Gender & Society, 13 (4), 503-517.

AB: A study was conducted to examine the effect of child gender on parents' commitment to gender equity. Data were obtained from responses of random samples of men and women in Oregon and Washington to mail and telephone surveys carried out in Oregon and Washington during the winter of 1997-98. Results revealed that both fathers' and mothers' support for public policies designed to address gender equity is greater when parents have daughters only. The findings were stronger for men, which suggests that child rearing might provide a mechanism for social change, whereby the connection between fathers and daughters undermines fathers' commitment to patriarchy. However, this appeared to be limited to support for equity public policies in relation to women's participation in education and employment rather than to support for minimizing costs to women of traditional caregiving roles. When men have sons only, they exhibit the least support for gender equity public policies, suggesting that wanting what is best for their children prevents men from challenging their patriarchal dividend.

Whalen, J. J. (1996). Gender equity or Title IX?. Kansas Journal of Law and Public Policy, 5 (3), 65-70.

Whitehead, R., Spikes, P., & Hardin, L. (1997). Gender equity in college athletics after Brown and Louisiana State: Why the big boys are crying. Arkansas Lawyer, 32 (1), 10.

Wong, G., Covell, D. The rights thing. Gender equity and other rights are issues in high school athletics, as elsewhere. Athletic Business, 19 (4), 10;14.

Yasser, R., McCurdy, J. R., & Goplerud, C. P. (1997). Sports law: Cases and materials (3rd ed.). Cincinnati: Anderson Publishing Co.

Note: Available from Anderson Publishing Co., 2035 Reading Road, Cincinnati, Ohio 45202, U.S.A. Tel.: 800-582-7295, E-mail: andpubco@aol.com , Fax: (513) 562-5430

Women’s Sport Foundation (516-542-4700) in New York has a several resources on gender equity. Call for a list of sources or to place an order.