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About This Issue:
The formative role of early relationships in
development, particularly the relationship between the child and
the primary caregiver, is the focus of this issue. Relationship
theory and its impact on development is discussed in the
commentaries that follow. First, a review of current research
relevant to parent-child relationships and the implications for
policy and practice is presented, followed by an overview of the
theoretical basis for early relationships as they are linked to
the development of self. The final article describes a
comprehensive, innovative program serving young children and
their families.
Attachment Theory and
Real Life:
How to Make Ideas Work
by Anne Gearity,
L.I.C.S.W., M.S.W.
Attachment theory is essentially about how infants use adults
to teach them how to survive, as well as to supplement their
functioning, until they can do for themselves. We know this
survival is psychological as well as physical; children need
sustenance, protection and regulation to feel safe and to be able
to grow and increasingly take care of themselves.
For those of us working with young children, a familiar
children's story illustrates the notion of attachment theory.
Make Way for Ducklings, 1 by Robert McCloskey, is a vintage book
describing the migration of the Mallard family from the river,
through downtown Boston, to the Public Gardens.
"'Don't you worry,' said Mrs. Mallard (to Mr. Mallard).
'I know all about bringing up children.' And she did. She taught
them how to swim and dive..., to walk in a line, to come when
they were called, and to keep a safe distance from bikes and
scooters and other things with wheels."
Mrs. Mallard's skills at survival were imprinted on her
ducklings, so that they could navigate through life in the
city.How do infants and young children learn to watch for danger
and make their way through the tasks of development? Certainly
the attachment relationship they have with their parents is the
critical ingredient. But John Bowlby, a primary theorist,
identifies that other individuals can be, and are, useful,
because subsequent experiences and relationships can alter the
developmental "pathways" that a child travels.
Attachment theory is extremely helpful for anyone working with
children-child care providers, teachers, health care and mental
health clinicians. It reminds us of essential human needs that
adults must provide for children. Children need adults to be
reliable, to be available to show the way, and to be willing to
help children learn to take care of themselves. This does not
suggest "forced independence," but rather promotes the
understanding that self-functions are one of the primary outcomes
of good attachment. Children learn to take care of themselves
only as well as they have been cared for. Attentive care fosters
self regard, self protection and self control. Having one's needs
met fosters a view of the world as responsive and caring, which
in turn leads to self regulation and a sense of equilibrium and
well being.
The second outcome of good attachment experience is a growing
capacity to be related to others because they are useful, but
also because caring and affection develop when the child's needs
are met. Eventually this pattern of needs being met leads to the
beginnings of empathy and a growing ability to be mutual-indeed,
to care for others. How can we apply this to our everyday work?
On the broadest level, children need to know that they can be
"attached" to the adults who are there with them. This
type of attachment is not to be interpreted in the most specific
way that we address the parenting relationship, but it does
remind us that reliability and an attitude of patience and
willingness to teach is crucial. Child care workers need to know
the concepts of attachment and understand their importance as
part of a larger community that is committed to raising our
children. Child care workers must also be recognized for the
critical work they do. There are major implications for policy
decisions regarding job compensation and working conditions in
order to assure that the adults who care for children are able to
realistically care for their own needs and come to work refreshed
and available.
Similarly, teachers can appreciate that within a curriculum
that values reading and writing, there is opportunity to
supplement children's attachment strengths. There are often
testimonies from adults who recall a teacher in grammar school
`who changed the course of my life.' This can be explained, in
attachment theory, as an adult who was able to inspire and
supplement development. Also, teachers must have access to
colleagues who can identify children's needs and difficulties and
give guidance and support. We are well aware that frustrated
attachment behaviors are rarely simple or easy to decode.
In mental health, where children with attachment difficulties
are often identified or sent for help, it is important to
remember that life histories are filtered through this primary
experience of adult usefulness-or absences. Children can grow up
without good attachment experiences, but their deficits are
related to the experience of having to learn alone and not being
able to rely on others. Any intervention must include two
essential components: 1) for at least a period of time, children
must have a sense of caring `company' as they learn about their
lives, and 2) the adults must be active in helping them learn to
function in ways that work better.
Attachment theory has enormous implications for the service
delivery systems that care for children when their parents
cannot. Foster care, family reunification and parent
supplementing must all be examined through this attachment lens
in order to assure that children can feel adult reliability from
a community, if not from a specific person.
In using the idea of `learning,' it is important to realize
that attachment is primary learning that occurs through both our
body and mind. It is the learning that the lucky infants do early
in life and easily utilize in subsequent tasks. It is learning
that many take as a given. Attachment theory offers a template
for those who haven't been able to `learn' with their senses
through early experience during infancy, and so must learn slowly
and with some pain and anxiety. If the community can regard this
learning as critical, and can support its members charged with
taking care of children, then we can develop increasingly better
ways to help children attach to the larger human community and
grow up able to care for themselves and others.
We know how to apply this theory. We know that, if we have the
time to carefully think about children's needs, we can make a
difference, especially if we can also believe we are part of a
community of adults. Collaboration means all of us working on the
same tasks to help children achieve the two outcomes of
attachment. Collaboration is one community task that unifies all
of our efforts. Anne Gearity is a Licensed Independent Clinical
Social Worker in practice in Minneapolis. She is a
psychotherapist and consultant with children and adolescents, in
addition to serving as a consultant to early education programs.
1 McCloskey, Robert; Make Way for Ducklings; NY: Viking Press,
1941.
2 Bowlby, John; Developmental Psychiatry Comes of Age; American
Journal of Psychiatry, 145:1, January 1988.
Attachment Theory:
Parent-Child Relationships Revisited
by Mary Ann Marchel,
Ph.D.
The link between relationships and the development of self is
supported by relationship researchers and theorists (Sroufe,
1988, Sroufe and Fleeson, 1986). Major aspects of human
functioning (or the organization of the self) are said to develop
out of the internalization process, which is the attribution of
feelings or meaning to relationship experiences. This
internalization process is progressive-it is continuous over
time, across contexts, and across developmental transformations.
The parent-child relationship serves as a prototype for future
relationships of the child. It is this first relationship that
the child uses as a template to apply to future relationship
experiences. In short, the quality of early relationships predict
later relationships, and success in later relationships takes
root in the context of the parent-child relationship.
The parent and child as partners must accomplish two basic
goals that serve as the foundation for healthy relationships with
others in the future: 1) the establishment of a basic sense of
trust in the world-"When I need you, you'll be there;"
and 2) the allowance for emotional regulation- the expression of
feelings, along with the underlying physiological patterning.
When these two goals are successfully met, it is likely that the
child will experience a satisfactory attachment relationship with
her caregiver.
Furthermore, the child who is experiencing a satisfactory
attachment relationship with her caregiver may be more likely to
explore the surrounding environment, guided by a sense of trust
that her caregiver will be there, acting as a secure base.
Through this exploration of the environment, the child gains
greater competence, acquiring greater independence in future
learning experiences.
Failure to accomplish the goals of the parent-child
relationship will result in an inadequate attachment
relationship, placing the child on a pathway to relationship
difficulties throughout life. For example, the absence of a basic
sense of trust may prevent a child from leaving the caregiver's
side to explore the surrounding environment, thereby preventing
opportunities for him to develop competence and learn about his
world.
What constitutes a high quality parent-child relationship?
Experts suggest that the quality of the parent-child relationship
is dependent on how well the `wholeness' of the relationship is
recognized. This refers to the ability with which the
parent-child relationship organizes roles and rules, and balances
the positive and negative affective/emotional qualities of the
relationship. For example, when children are required to assume a
role they are not developmentally capable of performing (e.g., if
they are asked to be `parents'), they may feel overwhelmed and,
hence, out of control. If the parent-relationship does not
reorganize the balance and definition of the child's role to more
appropriately match the child's needs, the quality of the
parent-child relationship is jeopardized. In addition, the extent
to which the parent and child function as partners and respond to
one another's cues across time, contexts and developmental
transformations positively influences the quality of this primary
relationship.
A finely tuned caregiver-child dyad is characterized by mutual
recognition and response to one another's needs. Child needs are
determined, in part, by issues apparent at each developmental
period. In an optimal caregiver-child relationship, the caregiver
acknowledges the issues that accompany a given developmental
period and provides the necessary, developmentally appropriate
support and guidance to the child. A listing of caregiver roles
that accompany the typical developmental issues associated with
each chronological age can be found in the table below.
A healthy parent-child relationship can be likened to a dance
in which each partner is highly in tune with the other person's
steps and movements. If one partner loses a sense of balance, the
other partner counters the effects of gravity and assists the
falling partner. This interplay between partners is apparent in
the dance orchestrated between parent and child. For example, if
the child elicits cues suggesting that she does not wish to be
stimulated (such as avoiding direct eye contact) and, in
response, the caregiver waits for a more optimal time to hold or
play with the child, a mutual respect of each other's needs
maintains the balance of the parent-child relationship. In some
instances, however, the ability to read a partner's cues is
absent and the orchestration of the dance between parent and
child is in need of an outside choreographer, such as the
services provided by parent educators or mental health
professionals.
Research about early relationships reveals the positive impact
associated with healthy parent-child relationships. In addition,
longitudinal studies suggest that these positive impacts have
long-term effects on developmental outcomes. With these facts in
mind, it is imperative that research efforts in the study of
parent-child relationships be continued. In addition, early
childhood programs hat encourage and nurture the parent-child
relationship, rather than approaching the parent and child as
separate entities, need to be recognized as models for future
efforts.
Mary Ann Marchel is a recent graduate of the doctoral program
in Educational Psychology at the University of Minnesota. She has
experience as an early interventionist with children ages birth
to five and their families. Her research interests include family
adaptation and associated implications for early
interventionists. This article is based on presentations made by
Alan Sroufe, Ph.D. and June Fleeson, Ph.D. in June 1995 at the
Contemporary Child Development Institute: Research, Practice and
Policy sponsored by the Institute of Child Development at the
University of Minnesota.
Developmental Period
|
Age
|
Issue
|
Role of Caregiver
|
| 1 |
0-3 mo. |
Physiological regulations |
Provide smooth routines |
| 2 |
3-6 mo. |
Management of tension |
Be sensitive, model cooperative interaction |
| 3 |
6-12 mo. |
Establishment of an effective attachment relationship |
Be responsive and available |
| 4 |
12-18 mo. |
Exploration and mastery |
Provide a secure base |
| 5 |
18-30 mo. |
Individuation (autonomy) |
Provide firm support |
| 6 |
30-54 mo. |
Management of impulses, gender-role identification |
Model clear roles, values, flexibility, self-control |
| 7 |
6-11yrs |
Consolidation of self-concept, establishment of loyal
friendships, effective same-gender peer group
functioning, real world competence |
Monitor and support activities, co-regulate |
| 8 |
12-18yrs |
Establish personal identity, establish mixed gender
relationships, intimacy |
Be available as a resource, monitor the child's
self-regulation |
(Adapted from A. Stroufe)
Southside Family
Nurturing Center
by Stacy George
Nestled in the Phillips neighborhood of Minneapolis stands a
historic, restored, brick Victorian mansion with exquisite
woodwork, endless ceilings and enormous windows. What makes this
structure so beautiful are the caring and nurturing individuals
who fill the rooms with laughter and hope. Housed within this
special place is Southside Family Nurturing Center.
Founded in 1974, Southside provides support and encouragement
for families who struggle with issues related to physical,
emotional and sexual abuse and neglect. The nonprofit program is
funded by various sources including the United Way, Hennepin
County and several private foundations. Families who enter the
program do so on a referral basis through Child Protection
Services, health clinics, schools, community agencies or through
current or former clients. Assessment, screening, and placement
are administered by the Southside staff and are authorized by
Hennepin County Early Childhood Services.
In order to meet the varying needs of families, Southside
Family Nurturing Center offers both center-based classes for
toddlers and preschoolers and a home-based program for infants.
The center-based program assists approximately 20 toddlers, 28
preschoolers and their parents. Children in both the in-center
toddler program and preschool classes are involved in various
types of play throughout the day. The play areas at the center
include a large muscle group area, a living room, a color/writing
work area and a water table.
A spacious basement provides a wonderful large muscle group
play area for the children. Tricycles, balls and climbing toys
fill this room where children run, jump and play. The living room
play area allows children to dress up, read books and create
make-believe entrees in the play kitchen. The coloring/writing
work area also gives children an opportunity to explore rock
painting, picture drawing and other art activities. At the water
table, children are encouraged to play in the water with a wide
array of water toys. The focus of each play area is to improve
problem-solving, conflict resolution and other social skills.
The infant home-based program serves approximately ten infants
and their caregivers. Parents and staff work together to build a
nurturing environment. The goal of the program is to build
positive parenting skills and increase both parent-child
attachment and parent confidence.
Four basic types of home visits-intake and assessment,
counseling, parenting skills training and community
resources/advocacy-provide guidance for families. A team of
social workers, teachers, speech and occupational therapists and
student interns work together to ensure that the needs of both
the parent and child are being met.
Southside Family Nurturing Center has made a concentrated
effort to include culturally diverse families and staff. The
program is sensitive to both the varying needs and cultural
traditions of each family. Events such as Family Night and Family
Day give parents and family members an opportunity to share their
cultural experiences and exchange ideas and concerns about
parenting and life issues.
Family Night is open to all home-based families. Parents,
staff, and children meet weekly for dinner, parent group,
supervised play for children and parent-child play time. Parents
have an opportunity to spend quality play time with their
children, visit the center and talk with staff about their
questions and concerns.
Family Day invites parents in the center-based program to
spend one day a week at the center with their children, the staff
and other parents. Family Day not only builds stronger
parent-child relationships, but it also gives parents an
opportunity to create new friendships and enjoy the company of
others in the program. Parents eat breakfast with their children,
participate in creative activities and play with their children
at various times throughout the day.
Parents are also involved in discussion groups with the staff.
Guest speakers are brought in to share new information with
parents, allowing participants to express their thoughts about
home life, work or other concerns. Private discussions with the
staff also give parents an opportunity to share personal
concerns, experiences or questions.
Fathers and father figures in each family are actively
involved in the center- and home-based programs. The Fathers'
Program at Southside Family Nurturing Center works with
individuals to guide them in their role as father figures for
their families. The program addresses issues such as defining
fatherhood, responsibility, self-esteem, child development,
appropriate discipline, chemical dependence and family violence.
Fathers in the center-based program are encouraged to visit
Southside on Family Day to play with their children and
participate in parent groups. Fathers in the home-based program
are encouraged to meet at the center one night a week to discuss
any questions or concerns they have. Once a month, participants
in the home- and center-based Fathers' Programs come together as
a group to share feelings and express concerns about their roles
as fathers in their families.
Southside recognizes the importance of allowing parents to
choose how much and when to participate. Building trust can be an
extremely slow process, something the Southside staff
understands. Staff members believe that when parents feel safe
and valued, they are less likely to direct their daily
frustrations toward their children. The staff works with families
in a unified way, helping them resolve issues that interfere with
adequate parenting.
Overall, the program's philosophy is to provide an environment
in which both children and families have a guided opportunity to
grow. It is designed to help families and children establish
positive, nurturing relationships with one another. By reducing
many stress factors, center staff believe that child abuse and
neglect are both preventable and treatable. The positive
attitudes, encouraging words and dedication of the staff help the
families get the support, guidance and resources they need to
provide the best for their children.
Stacy George is a Graduate Research Assistant at the Center
for Early Education and Development (CEED). She is pursuing a
Master's Degree in Education and a Deaf/Hard of Hearing teaching
license at the University of Minnesota.
Additional Readings on Attachment:
Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Parent-child attachment and
healthy human development. New York: Basic Books Inc.
Sroufe, L.A. & Fleeson, J. (1986). Attachment and the
construction of relationships. In W. Hartup & Z. Rubin
(eds.), Relationships and development, (pp. 51-71). Hillsdale,
N.J.: Earlbaum.
Sroufe, L.A. (1988). The role of infant-caregiver attachment
in development. In J. Nelsky & T. Nezworski (Eds.), Clinical
implications of attachment. Hillsdale, N.J.: Earlbaum.
Minnesota Resources
Family Support Program
MN*TAFS (Minnesota Technical Assistance for Family Support) is
designed to strengthen and broaden local family support efforts
initiated through Interagency Early Intervention Committees
(IEICs) throughout Minnesota. Family Support Subcommittees are
designing and implementing plans that address local family
support needs for families with young children with disabilities
(ages birth-6), and MN*TAFS offers training and technical
assistance to enhance those efforts.
MN*TAFS promotes the concept and value of family support,
offers technical assistance to local Family Support
Subcommittees; shares good practice; links local efforts with
state and national initiatives; and provides ongoing
communication regarding issues, successes and trends to key
stakeholders. Helpful tools that have been developed include: 1)
a self-study guide that aides Family Support Subcommittees in
identifying priorities to address in family support; 2)
procedures that assist local subcommittees in assessing their
success in providing support to families; and 3) useful bulletins
pertaining to specific family support activities.
MN*TAFS is a parent-professional partnership, and is funded
through the Minnesota Department of Children, Families and
Learning (Part H and Part B-Section 619, IDEA). Each member
carries a torch for the concept and value of family support. For
more information, contact Sara Schoepf, Beth Jansen or Deb
Niedfeldt at 320/632-0406.
A sampling of courses offered at the University of Minnesota
on parent/child relationships and attachment theory:
CPsy 5332 Cross-Cultural Child Development, 4 credits
CPsy 5336 Development and Interpersonal Relations, 4 credits
FSoS 1001 Introduction to Family Relationships, 4 credits
FSoS 1025 Parenthood, 4 credits
FSoS 5025 Parenting, 4 credits
FSoS 5200 Family Systems, 5 credits
Soc 3501 The Family System, 4 credits
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Spring 1996