Motor Skill Development
In this issue, colleagues from the School of Kinesiology and
Leisure Studies in the College of Education at the University
provide insights into the development of motor skills and the
relationship of movement to the general development of the child.
Michael Wade calls attention to basic facts about early
physical development and the implications for other developmental
domains. He points to the need for parents and professionals to
recognize and capitalize on motor skills and play behavior that
is intrinsic to the growing child.
Allen Burton describes how motor skills develop, the factors
which influence that development, and their importance to raising
healthy, well-developed children.
Diane Wiese-Bjornstal suggests that play, movement and
physical activity are extremely important elements in the social
development of children. They effect basic notions of
"getting along" and making friends as well as more
sophisticated social skills of leadership, competition, and
conflict resolution.
We are pleased that implications for practitioners have been
included in each article. We are reminded not to think of
physical activity, sports and play as a "fitness"
program, but as key components of cognitive, social and emotional
development. Programs for children should provide developmentally
appropriate movement opportunities as an integral part of the
educational experience. It follows then, that professional
educators must become knowledgeable about working with children
in this domain.
For additional information you can call the authors at
612/625-0555, or write to them at the School of Kinesiology and
Leisure Studies, 110 Cooke Hall, 1900 University Avenue S.E.,
Minneapolis, MN 55455.
Motor Skills, Play and
Child Development: An Introduction
by Michael G. Wade,
Ph.D.
The literature for professionals who work with children in
preschool and elementary grades often refers to the importance of
play, movement, and physical activity and its relationship to
overall development. What is often missed is the important
connection these activities have to the cognitive development of
children. Certainly, it is important to recognize the critical
necessities of food and nourishment to grow physically to the
point where a child can begin to walk and talk. Otherwise it is
impossible for that child to exhibit normal patterns of
development that promote interaction with the environment and
healthy growth.
Without movement, without opportunities to play and explore
the environment, the child will not thrive. Psychologists and
educators sometimes fail to recognize fully the crucial role of
perceptual-motor development and play in the overall development
of children. Only recently have programs in child psychology
begun to offer specific course work and require students to
better understand the importance of the role physical activity
and play serve in the development of the child.
From the moment of conception, the neurological apparatus that
begins to develop in the embryo reflects the primacy of the motor
cortex. The beginning structure of the brain in the embryo is the
neural groove. This groove essentially closes in on itself,
allowing the development of the cerebral cortex, or the two
hemispheres which we commonly recognize when we see a picture of
the brain. It should be noted that the first closing along this
neural groove is the area that will ultimately develop into the
motor cortex. From the earliest period of neural development, it
is the motor cortex that leads the way and provides us with an
evolutionary perspective that would suggest that movement will be
the primary vehicle of discovery for the developing child.
A child is born with a series of basic reflexes and is
entirely dependent on others for nutrition and sustenance. In a
relatively short period of time, assuming normal nutrition and
weight gain, the child quickly develops the capability to move
around the environment and begins developing a repertoire of
simple motor skills. These skills allow the child to discover the
world via its perceptual systems--the sensations of smell, touch,
sound, and sight. Before long the child reaches a critical point
in physical development, moving from a crawling position to
maintaining upright posture. From here on, as any parent will
attest, there is a veritable explosion of motor activity, as
walking, then running, follow the acquisition of control of
upright posture.
This milestone has implications for other developmental
domains. Locomotion brings opportunities not only to explore the
environment independently, but to take advantage of opportunities
to interact with other people and, consequently, acquire a whole
range of social competencies. In the first two years, the child
acquires a rapidly increasing repertoire of motor skills, such as
reaching and grasping, walking and running, as well as a parallel
set of motor skills imbedded in the speech apparatus which, don't
forget, is also a motor skill.
In these very early years the child's physical development may
be the only domain in which one can assess general development.
The abilities demonstrated in movement provide a primary window
into the status of the person. The child who is disabled
physically from birth or has a damaged central nervous system,
however subtle, usually exhibits deficits first in the motor
domain, either by a failure or slowness to acquire locomotion,
upright posture, or the ability to speak.
Movement behavior reflects the complete development of the
growing child and provides a rich context for parents, teachers,
and child development professionals to enrich the child's
experience. We can capitalize on the motor skill and play
behavior that is intrinsic to the growing child.
The point to be stressed is that movement and play should not
be the part of the curriculum used to diffuse energy or to
"let off steam" so that children can then return to the
more serious elements of learning. Rather, motor skills and play
are important precursors of the more formal and stylized elements
of what we refer to as cognitive or intellectual development.
Movement experiences and play should be key elements in the
curriculum and experience of children both at school and at home.
Research suggests that the child seeks information--is naturally
inquisitive. This inherent curiosity can best be addressed via
movement and play behaviors, particularly in the preschool years.
During this period intellectual and motor skills have not become
formal and stereotyped. The child is developing an understanding
of his or her own capacity for movement. Thus, for parents and
professionals, understanding development of movement skills and
play is fundamental to a complete understanding about child
development. A lack of play experiences and opportunities to
participate in vigorous physical activity and movement can slow
both physical and intellectual growth.
It must be recognized and understood that it is not enough to
provide for play and physical activity by having
"recess." Adequate time and structured environments
that reflect the developmental level of the child must be an
integral part of the child's education.
The Development of
Movement Skills
by Allen W. Burton,
Ph.D.
The transformation of a helpless infant into a walking toddler
in approximately one year is one of the miracles of childhood.
Despite great variety in body size, degree of muscular strength,
opportunity to move, and actual experience, walking is first
observed in about 80 percent of all infants between 10 and 15
months after birth. The acquisition of new motor skills from
birth through early childhood follows a remarkably consistent
pathway allowing us as children, and later as adults, to interact
competently with the environment.
The interaction with one's environment in infancy through
self-produced locomotion provides the foundation for the
development of cognitive, perceptual, and social skills. Thus, it
is not surprising that the consistent sequence of early motor
milestones is often used by early childhood professionals to
evaluate the developmental status of skills in these three areas.
All through childhood, children's movement competence continues
to play a major role in their overall development and their
ability to acquire the skills of life.
Given the importance of the development of movement skills
during early childhood, persons who work with young children
should have a good understanding of:
a) the developmental hierarchy of movement skills, and b) the
factors which may affect the appearance and unfolding of these
skills.
Developmental Hierarchy of Movement
Skills
Movement skills may be defined as identifiable movement
patterns which are used to accomplish certain tasks. A better
understanding of specific movement skills may be gained by
categorizing them into a four-level developmental hierarchy.
Level 1
At the bottom of the hierarchy are reflexes,
which dominate the motor behavior of infants for the first three
or four months after birth. Examples of primitive reflexes are
the grasp reflex, elicited by placing an object in an infant's
hand and the stepping reflex, elicited by holding an infant
upright and gently bouncing his/her feet on a table or floor.
Primitive reflexes afford infants their first opportunities to
interact with their world, but by about four months these
reflexes usually disappear. Although these responses are
apparently not under the direct control of the infant, some
experts believe they help to establish the frames of reference
between the infant's eyes, head, trunk, and limbs necessary for
successful voluntary motor behavior.
Level 2
The early locomotor milestones--including rolling
over, creeping, crawling, standing, walking with support, and
walking independently--are at the next level up the hierarchy.
These locomotor milestones usually appear between four to
thirteen months, with the onset of independent walking marking
the end of infancy and the beginning of toddlerhood. About 85-to-
90 percent of all infants demonstrate these skills in the same
chronological order, with the others either skipping a skill
(e.g., going directly from rolling over to standing) or showing
alternate skills (e.g., scooting in a sitting position).
In the 1950s and 1960s some theorists hypothesized that
infants who do not show the "normal" sequence of early
locomotor milestones are at greater risk for learning and/or
speech problems, but there has been little evidence reported to
support this notion.
Level 3
The third level is comprised of what are usually
called fundamental motor skills which emerge from the end of
infancy to about six or seven years of age. These include
locomotor skills such as running, jumping, hopping, galloping,
and skipping, and object control skills such as throwing,
catching, striking, kicking, and dribbling. Walking, the last
early motor milestone, might also be considered to be one of the
fundamental motor skills. The term "fundamental"
suggests that these skills provide the foundation for the
learning of other, more specialized movement skills.
The movement skills at the first three levels of the hierarchy
sometimes are referred to as phylogenetic (development of a
species) skills, meaning they are common to all human beings.
Level 4
At the top level of the hierarchy are specialized
movement skills sometimes referred to as ontogenetic (development
of an individual) skills because they are not demonstrated by all
persons, but are specific to the needs and interests of a
particular person. There are many specialized movement skills,
which are more specific forms of fundamental motor skills. They
include such movements as the windmill pitch in softball or new
skills created by combining fundamental motor skills, such as a
volleyball spike which combines jumping and striking.
Although specialized movement skills are observed in earlier
years, they are primarily learned after fundamental motor skills
are intact, from about six-to-seven years and throughout a
person's lifetime.
Factors Affecting Movement Skill
Development
The exact timing of when a particular early locomotor
milestone, fundamental motor skill, or specialized movement skill
is first observed in a given individual may depend on one or more
performer or environmental factors.
Performer factors which are most likely to affect the
emergence of particular movement skills include body size and
physical growth, strength relative to body weight, and the
maturity of the nervous system. Research about body size shows
that children with proportionately longer legs, who are not
overweight, tend to walk earlier than children with shorter legs.
Degree of strength is illustrated by jumping or hopping, which
requires children to have at least enough strength to project
their bodies off the ground.
Most motor development experts view the maturity of the
nervous system as the primary factor in effective use of movement
skills in children. The greatest problem for the developing
nervous system is to control the many separate action units of
the body. In one arm alone, excluding the hand, there are
approximately 2,600 motor units, 26 muscles, and 4 joints.
Through learning and maturation, independent action units become
coordinated, reducing the need to control individual units.
Instead of thinking about the actions at each joint in
clumsily performing a new skill, a child may soon be able to
smoothly coordinate the joint actions and simply think about
performing a single action. For example, some children may be
able to both step and hop, the two basic components of the skip,
but unless they are able to coordinate the timing of the two
skills in both legs, they will not be able to perform this
fundamental movement skill. However, a child suddenly may be able
to skip as his/her maturing nervous system allows him/her to
build larger and more complex coordinated units of action.
Environmental factors may also influence the emergence of
movement skills. The motivation to move may be enhanced by
exposing children to environmental features that invite action,
such as interesting objects and toys, accommodating surfaces and
terrains, playful siblings and friends, and attentive caregivers.
Improving attractiveness and increasing opportunities to move may
advance early locomotor milestones and in later years, may be the
most important factor in a child becoming proficient at
specialized movement skills.
On the other hand, limited opportunities to actively explore
the environment and participate in movement activities may delay
or deny a child's acquisition of certain movement skills. For
example, a researcher recently reported that infants who spent
more than two hours a day in walkers crawled and crept
significantly later than other infants. It should be emphasized,
however, that the long-term effect of this type of experience is
unknown.
Practical implications for persons
working with young children.
1. Do not compare children's movement skills based on
chronological age, as is usually done, but remember that many
performer factors contribute to the development of each child's
skills.
2. Implements, toys, and sports and game equipment should be
proportionately scaled to children's body sizes. This suggests,
for instance, that crayons and markers smaller than adult size,
rather than larger as is the tradition, should be provided for
young children with small hands to promote the most mature
writing or drawing behaviors.
Developing Mind and
Body: Psychological and Social Development
Through Physical Activity and Sport
by Diane
Wiese-Bjornstal, Ph.D.
Movement and sport experiences are central not only to the
physical development and maturation of youngsters but also to
their psychological and social development. For example, through
physical activity and sport, youngsters learn to feel competent
and worthy, develop moral responsibility, feel joy and enthusiasm
for their bodies and human movement, and learn cooperative and
competitive skills essential for adulthood. Many of these
benefits are often achieved without the benefit of adult
guidance, through the natural play and movement intrinsic to
children. However, the role of the adult is crucial in
structuring situations to maximize opportunity for development
and by providing guidance when "teachable moments"
naturally occur.
Perceived Competence
It is essential for children to develop and
maintain a positive view of themselves and their competencies.
Through physical activity and sport experiences, the foundation
is laid for the development of perceived competence (defined as
domain-specific self-esteem) in the physical and social domains.
Available research shows that within the physical achievement
domain, the sources from which children derive information about
their competence differ across age. Adult feedback is an
important source of information in the early years, but such
dependence often declines with age as children increasingly learn
from their peers.
This general pattern varies depending on factors such as
psychological characteristics. For example, sport research has
shown that children with low self-esteem, low perceived
competence, and high anxiety about competition are more sensitive
to adult evaluation of their physical competence than children
with contrasting psychological characteristics. It has been found
also that children who seriously underestimate their physical
competence may be likely candidates for low levels of physical
achievement, or worse, discontinued physical activity involvement
altogether.
One major implication for adult leaders is to provide plenty
of opportunity for success in physical activity experiences for
all children at their current level of actual competence. In
addition to experiencing success, children must perceive and
believe their actions are responsible for that success and they
can control skill improvement and successful outcomes. There can
be a direct relationship between perceived competence and
performance in the physical and social domains.
To develop positive self-perceptions about physical mastery
attempts, sport researchers suggest: 1) provide contingent and
appropriate praise and criticism. Give a specific, and earned
reason for the praise, e.g., "You did a good job of catching
the ball;" 2) Give frequent and qualitative skill-relevant
feedback, such as, "Sally, you are stepping toward the ball
nicely, but next time work on extending your arms out to meet the
ball;" 3) Encourage children to evaluate their own
performance realistically. If they did well because of skill,
suggest they can say, "I'm proud!" or, "I did
it!" rather than, "I was just lucky."
Moral development
The potential for youngsters to experience
positive moral growth and development through physical activity
and sport experiences is enormous. Concepts of fair play and
sports-like behavior can be gained through properly structured
and guided movement experiences. Research examining purposeful
introduction of moral dilemmas into physical activity and sport
settings, along with guidance from adults about appropriate
strategies to resolve dilemmas, indicates that children can learn
skills which help them successfully negotiate conflict
situations.
Time-outs can be taken from games and play activities to take
advantage of meaningful learning opportunities as they arise.
Issues and underlying values can be discussed, the desirable
behavior reinforced or alternative behaviors suggested, and play
can resume. Children should be encouraged to discuss what other
children do that makes them feel good or bad, how to help one
another act out the values they have discussed, and how they can
better work together so all kids can benefit equally from
participation in the activity.
Physical activity and sport offer excellent opportunities to
learn respect for authority and rules, proper responses to
winning and losing, sensitivity to others, and being the best you
can be. Adults should create environments that will foster good
behavior and an understanding of the reasoning behind it.
Sports-like behavior can be promoted by preventing conflicts from
occurring as well as solving problems as they happen. The
importance of adults modeling desirable and appropriate ethical
behavior cannot be overstated.
Positive affect
To a great extent, children participate in
physical activity because it is "fun!" Looking at these
feelings of positive affect, children say that fun includes
excitement, challenge, winning, being with friends, improving
skills, maintaining a positive relationship with a teacher or
coach, and experiencing personal success. Unfortunately, the fun
aspect is lost sight of in many programs led by adults,
particularly youth sport programs. Given that fun is the prime
motivator, it is essential that adults are careful not to
undermine but, rather, take advantage of children's innate
enthusiasm for movement and play and maximize the fun.
Keeping physical activity fun
1. Provide lots of action and variety in the class, practice,
or play setting. Make sure all children stay involved, and avoid
the common practice of standing in long lines to await a turn. It
takes creativity with limited space and equipment, but just do
it!
2. Plan plenty of opportunity for social and interactive
activities; rotate partners and teammates to encourage children
to learn to interact with a wide variety of others. Making
friends is an important aspect of fun.
3. Provide for skill-learning, practice, and optimal
challenges for a variety of skill levels.
4. Recognize and encourage effort and improvement in physical
participation.
5. Provide time for children to experience the sheer joy of
playful movement.
Competitive skills
Within the competitive structure of many physical
activity and sport experiences are countless opportunities for
teaching important social values. What better place than in the
midst of a game to discuss the true meaning of such values as
winning, losing, success, failure, anxiety, rejection, fair play,
acceptance, friendship, and cooperation? Remember that
competition is a developmental process that progresses through
stages just as does motor development. Types and levels of
competition in physical activity and sport should be consistent
with each stage of development.
Research suggests that children do not really understand
"competition" until the later elementary school years.
Children certainly compete with others much earlier and may have
a rudimentary understanding of the concept; however, it is only
after children have developed the cognitive ability to assume the
role of the other person that they can truly appreciate what
competition in sport really means.
The primary implication for those planning physical activity
and perhaps, more importantly, youth sport programs is to greatly
de-emphasize competition with others during the early childhood
years. Instead, emphasis should be placed on skill development,
teamwork, personal improvement, and social interaction skills,
and on the positive affect associated with participation. For
example, early in skill learning, children might
"compete" only with themselves in trying to improve on
their own performances. Elements of competition against opponents
can be gradually introduced beginning in the mid-elementary
school years. Teaching about competition must be planned and
structured in the same ways as other concepts and skills. In the
upper elementary grades children will appreciate more chances to
test their skills against others in competitive contests.
Cooperative skills
Competitive games can often be modified to be
more cooperative and humanistic. The basic concept is to
encourage children engaged in physical activity experiences to
play with rather than against each other, and to play to overcome
physical challenges, not to overcome other children/ opponents.
Games should be designed to make cooperation among players
necessary to achieve the objectives.
Children can, in a fun way, learn to become more considerate
of one another, more aware of the feelings of others, and more
willing to cooperate for mutual benefit. Research findings in
studies assessing the social impact of involving children in
cooperative games programs have also shown an increase in
cooperative behavior in free play and in classroom situations. By
designing more cooperative versions of traditional games, it is
possible to create tremendous potential for enhancing social
development through physical activity.
The development of personal values and social skills can be
enhanced by participation in physical activity and sport. The
role of adult leaders in the process is crucial to establish the
proper environment in which they can develop. When afforded the
opportunity to do so, adult leaders must carefully structure
physical activity and sport situations to enhance the chances for
children to experience positive personal and social growth.
Within such structure, however, they should not lose sight of
retaining the joy and enthusiasm associated with free
participation in movement experiences and play activities.
References
Block, S.D. Me and I'm Great: Physical Education for Children
3-8. Minneapolis: Burgess Publishers, 1977.
Magill, R.A., M.J. Ash, and F.L. Smoll. Children in Sport.
Chicago: Human Kinetics Publishers, 1982.
Munson, E. and M. Sorenson. Motor Development and Physical
Education Activities for Young Children. St. Paul: Minnesota
Department of Education, 1989.
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Winter 1992, Volume 19, Number 2