Homophobia
Nylund, D. (2004). "When in Rome: heterosexism, homophobia, and sports talk radio." Journal of sport and social issues (Thousand Oaks, Calif.) 28(2): 136-168.
This article critically analyzes the U.S. growth of sports talk radio programs, with a particular focus on its sex and gender implications. It has been argued that sports talk radio texts reinscribe dominant ideologies, namely, hegemonic masculinity. A textual and audience analysis of the most popular nationally syndicated program, The Jim Rome Show, suggests that although the program reproduces many aspects of traditional masculinity, sexism, and heterosexism, there are fissures and exceptions to the dominant, hyper-masculine discourse. For instance, Jim Rome's liberal stance on homophobia and sports indicates that sports radio may be a place for sports fans/men to discuss gender and sexuality in meaningful ways. Hence, The Jim Rome Show serves as a mediated site where men can negotiate and reconfigure masculinity in contemporary postmodern times.
Syken, B. (2003). Not-so-gay life: there are many homosexuals in the NFL, says a new tome, but also a strong strain of homophobia.
Bill Syken reviews Mike Freeman's Bloody Sundays, an uneven look at the NFL. Freeman uses his investigative reporting to reveal an anonymous account of gay players in the NFL. A sidebar includes Syken's review of John Grisham's Bleachers.
Robertson, S. (2003). "'If I let a goal in, I'll get beat up': contradictions in masculinity, sport and health." Health Educ Res 18(6): 706-16.
This paper presents a critical exploration of the relationship between masculinity, sport and health by reporting findings from a wider qualitative study on lay men's and health professionals' beliefs about masculinity and preventative health care. Recent years have seen a surge of interest in relation to 'men's health'. In particular, the Department of Health has highlighted how men's connection to sport, fitness and competitiveness can be used in health promotion initiatives to introduce facets of health. In contrast, work in the sociological and feminist literature has raised issues of concern about the relationship between men, masculinity and sport, particularly the links to aggression, misogyny and homophobia. It would appear then that a straightforward 'men + sport = health' relationship cannot be assumed. Focus groups and interviews with health professionals and men, including gay and disabled men, were undertaken to facilitate examination of the socially integrative meanings of sport and masculinity, and their relationship to health. Socializing, 'macho' culture and the body emerged as three main themes, and the implications of these empirical findings for health promotion are discussed.
Morrow, R. G. and D. L. Gill (2003). "Perceptions of homophobia and heterosexism in physical education." Research quarterly for exercise and sport (Reston, Va.) 74(2): 205-214.
Educators have a responsibility to provide safe space, but gay and lesbian youth face particularly hostile environments. This initial study surveyed physical education teachers (n = 82) and young adults (n = 77) about their perceptions of homophobic and heterosexist behaviors within physical education and teachers' use of inclusive behaviors. Most teachers and both gay and straight students witnessed heterosexist and homophobic behavior, and most lesbian and gay students had personally experienced homophobic behavior: These data indicate that homophobic and heterosexist behaviors are common in secondary schools, that teachers intend to provide a safe space, and that teachers fail to confront heterosexist or homophobic behaviors and take proactive steps to create an inclusive environment.
Mennesson, C. and J. P. Clement (2003). "Homosociability and homosexuality: the case of soccer played by women (Homosociabilidad y homosexualidad: el caso del futbol jugado por mujeres.) (Homosociabilite et homosexualite: le cas des joueuses de soccer.)." International review for the sociology of sport (London) 38(3): 311-330.
This article analyses the biographical and contextual elements favouring the involvement of female athletes playing high-level team sports in homosexual practices, a recurring issue in the sporting arena. The study takes place in the world of soccer, archetype in France - along with rugby - of a male-oriented, homophobic sociability that is unfavourable to feminization of the sport. Based on in-depth interviews and on a long observation period, this study contributes to the current scientific debate regarding the construction of identity, notably gender identity. It focuses in particular on Becker and Goffman's work on the process of normative construction. We first point out the role of female-team homosociability in the acquisition of knowledge that facilitates involvement in homosexual practices. Next, we discuss the biographical life routes - either circumstantial or relatively permanent - that tend to favour homosexuality.
Knight, J. L. and T. A. Giuliano (2003). "Blood, sweat, and jeers: the impact of the media's heteosexist portrayals on perceptions of male and female athletes." Journal of sport behavior (Mobile, Ala.) 26(3): 272-284.
Although female athletes are becoming more accepted in society, there is still a stigma surrounding women's sport known as "the image problem" (i.e., that all female athletes are lesbians). To circumvent this "problem", the sport media often employs a feminine apologetic in which they heterosexualize female athletes through emphasizing their relationships with men; however, this pattern is not frequently found in coverage of male athletes. Although the existence of this type of differential coverage has been confirmed by qualitative research, it is unknown to what extent these portrayals affect people's perceptions of male and female athletes. As part of a 2 (Gender of the Athlete: Female or Male) x 2 (Depiction of Sexual Orientation: Clearly Heterosexual or Ambiguous) between-subjects design, 91 predominantly White undergraduates (40 men, 51 women) read a fictitious newspaper profile about an Olympic athlete in which the article portrayed the athlete as clearly heterosexual or as having an ambiguous sexual orientation. Interestingly, and contrary to previous research, male athletes did not receive an "assumption " of heterosexuality. However, as predicted, both male and female athletes described as clearly heterosexual were perceived much more favorably than were athletes with an ambiguous sexual orientation.
Cohen, A. (2003). "Language barrier." Athletic business (Madison, Wis.) 27(9): 28.
Reports on a breach-of-contract case involving Holy Cross College athlete, Adam W. Ackermann, who claimed that he was not granted a hearing before the college's Community Standards Board as required by the student handbook.
Bynum, M. (2003). "Out there." Athletic business (Madison, Wis.) 27(8): 16.
Reports on current events in sport business including the winners of the 2003 Life Fitness Academy awards and the sponsorship of the Project to Eliminate Homophobia in Sport.
Boxill, J. (2003). Title IX and gender equity. Sports ethics: an anthology, Malden, Mass., Blackwell Publishing, c2003, p.254 261, Total No. of Pages: 8. J. Boxill.
In this study the author attempts to analyze the issues surrounding the integration of women into the traditionally male area of sport. The positive impact of Title IX is outlined, as are the negative effects of contending with institutional bias and the bias inherent in playing sports designed for male physical specifications. The author discusses competition, and the importance of women having access to the social advantages of sport, as well as the opportunities for self-development and self-expression which are provided by sport as a form of unalienated activity. She discusses means of providing women with access to sport, including promoting sports that emphasize female strengths, and the modification of standards, rules and equipment so as to facilitate access. The author goes on to discuss sex discrimination against female coaches and administrators as well as the way homophobia promotes male dominance in sport. She concludes that it is essential to promote gender equity in sport so that women too can have access to the personal and social advantages of this "significant social activity".
(2003). "Homophobia an unwanted player in recruiting wars." bNCAA news./b (Indianapolis, Ind.) ISSN:0027 6170 40(4): 4.
Brief feature consists of quotations providing opinions on matters of sexual orientation in athletes and coaches.
Robinson, L. (2002). The love of a strong women: the lesbian athlete. Black tights: women, sport and sexuality. 1st ed, Toronto, HarperCollins, c2002, p.59 76;236 237, Total No. of Pages: 20. L. Robinson.
This chapter discusses the stigma surrounding women's sport that all female athletes are lesbians and the extent to which homophobia is associated with women's experiences of competitive sport, all female players have had to confront.
Risner, D. (2002). "Sexual orientation and male participation in dance education: revisiting the open secret." Journal of dance education (Andover, N.J.) 2(3): 84-92.
This interpretive inquiry explores the ways in which young adult males experience and make meaning of the social stigmatization associated with men in dance. General procedures for this study include interviews, confidential surveys, and field observations with six undergraduate male students (three self-identified as heterosexual, two as gay, one as bisexual) enrolled in beginning level dance technique courses at a public university in the United States. The participants' narratives reveal a deeper understanding of social stigmatization as articulated through stories that lace together five important themes: homophobic stereotypes, narrow definitions of masculinity, heterosexist justifications for male participation, the absence of positive male role models (straight and gay), and internalized homophobia. The findings of the study suggest that a more responsive pedagogical path for confronting homophobic attitudes and social stigmatization should begin with openly discussing the fact that gay and bisexual males represent half of the male population in dance, and second, seeking to understand the larger social context male youth and teens encounter as dance students.
Kirk, D., D. Penney, et al. (2002). The social construction of gender in physical education and sport. A level physical education: the reflective performer, Champaign, Ill., Human Kinetics, c2002, p.vii;304 315;340;362, Total No. of Pages: 15. D. Kirk.
Examination of the social construction of gender in sport and physical education.
Iannotta, J. C. and M. J. Kane (2002). "Sexual stories as resistance narratives in women's sports: reconceptualizing identity performance." Sociology of sport journal (Champaign, Ill.) 19(4): 347-369.
Previous research has relied on the personal narratives of female coaches and athletes to generate knowledge related to homophobia in women's athletics. We suggest that the body of knowledge generated from these investigations has served to construct a meta story of victimization surrounding women's sport experiences. We make this claim primarily around theoretical frameworks that link a final, liberating stage of development with being explicitly out as a lesbian. As a result, only a narrow range of sexual identity performances (e.g., linguistically naming oneself as lesbian) is recognized as being effective in creating climates of tolerance and, by extension, social change. Employing an analytical tool developed by Plummer (1995), we examined the "sexual stories" of intercollegiate coaches who did not identify themselves as "out" lesbians, but who nevertheless employed a multiplicity of strategies related to the performance of their sexual identity to actively resist social injustice. Based on these findings, we call for a reconceptualization of identity performance that recognizes the non-linear, fluid and contextualized nature of sexual identity.
Gogol, S. (2002). A question of attitude. Hard fought victories: women coaches making a difference, Terre Haute, Ind., Wish Publishing, c2002, p.155 180;263 164, Total No. of Pages: 28. S. Gogol.
Biographies of several university women coaches describing the battles they fought in the development of their careers, particularly woman coaches who are part of a minority group or who face stereotyping.
(2002). Wrestling with manhood: boys, bullying & battering, Northampton, Mass., Media Education Foundation, c2002, 1 DVD.
CONTENTS: Sections: Taking wrestling seriously; Happy and escalating violence; Making men: glamorizing bullying; Homophobia and constructing heterosexuality; Divas: sex and male fantasy; Normalizing gender violence; It's only entertainment. Award-winning creators, Sut Jhally and Jackson Katz examine the enduring problems of men's violence against women and bullying in our schools.
Stack, R. J. (2001). The impact of homophobia on self-identified lesbians in sport, Thesis (M.S.)Slippery Rock University, 2001; includes bibliography (leaves 76-79).
Previous studies have analyzed the presence of homophobia in sport and many of these studies have focused on the impact of homophobia on women's sport. This study addressed the impact homophobia has on self-identified lesbians who participate in team-sports. Subjects were between the ages of 18 and 28, and were participating in, or had participated in, an intercollegiate sport for at least one season. Subjects were attained through the Internet, through lesbian establishments, and via e-mail. Data were collected through the use of a specially designed questionnaire and ethnographic interviews. An analysis of the data revealed that lesbian athletes experienced a moderate amount of homophobia in team sports. However, the incidence of homophobia experienced by the athletes was less in sport than in other areas of society. Further, the respondents' perceptions that homophobic incidents were prevalent in sport were much greater than the actual incidence of homophobia experienced and reported by the respondents.
Miranda, M. (2001). "Teachers play key role in safe environment. (The Faculty voice)." NCAA news (Indianapolis, Ind.) 38(23): 4-5.
Menez, G. (2001). "The toughest out: homosexuality in baseball." Sports illustrated (Los Angeles) 94(22): 26.
Billy Bean comments on the recent announcement by Brendan Lemon editor-in-chief of Out Magazine. Bean, who is gay, believes that even today, a professional athlete coming out is career suicide, since homophobia continues to prevail in professional sports.
Jimerson, J. B. (2001). "A conversation (Re) analysis of fraternal bonding in the locker room." Sociology of sport journal (Champaign, Ill.) 18(3): 317-338.
This article reexamines the fifteen talk fragments in "Fraternal Bonding in the Locker Room: A Profeminist Analysis of Talk about Competition and Women" (Curry, 1991), an oft-cited article on locker room talk, which epitomizes how sociologists utilize talk. Curry employed a profeminist perspective to study behavior in the locker rooms of two college sport teams. Curry claimed no one challenged sexism and homophobia in either locker room. I counter this claim by reanalyzing his examples. I employ a conversation analytic perspective to study the utterances presented by Curry in support of his claims, and I find that nine fragments reveal some dissent in how listeners reacted to crass talk. The disparities are due to Curry's selective rather than sequential analyses of utterances. For this reason, I argue that sports talk should be analyzed using conversation analysis.
Hawes, K. (2001). "H - the scarlet letter of sports. More people in athletics say it's time to start talking openly about homophobia." NCAA news (Indianapolis, Ind.) 38(21): 1;13-14.
Hart, K. L. (2001). Lesbian professional athletes: what was the cost of coming out? Thesis (Ph.D.)Florida State University, 2001; includes bibliography (leaves 173-187).
The literature suggests that lesbian and gay people continue to face discrimination in the United States. This discrimination has a negative effect on the wages of out gay and lesbian people. Although coming outis associated with personal benefits, such as less anxiety, greater social support, and increased self-esteem of the lesbian or gay person, the lesbian or gay person must consider the economic risks of coming outin the workplace. This type of decision is referred to as a cost-benefit decision, where the lesbian or gay person must weigh the benefits associated with coming out along with the economic (and other) risks. Sport is considered the workplace for professional athletes in this study. For this study, the out professional lesbian athlete is defined as a lesbian professional athlete who is out to all audiences, including the media. To the researcher's knowledge, currently, there are only six out lesbian professional athletes. Six out athletes were approached to participate in this study, and two participated. This study is a multi-case study which explored the coming out process of out lesbian professional athletes and their perceptions of the effects it had, specifically regarding their endorsement opportunities. Badgett's (1996) Economic Model of Workplace Disclosure was used to formulate four research questions: (a) Why did each athlete decide to come out? (b) When deciding whether or not to publicly come out, what was the decision-making process of each athlete? (c) What were the economic and other risks of coming out? (d) What were the benefits of coming out? Athlete interviews were used as the primary source of data for this study, while other sources of data, including documents, were used for triangulation. In analyzing the data, the researcher found differences in each athlete's progression through the stages of the Cass (1979) model, the context of each athlete's coming out situation, and the workplace situation of each athlete. Emerging themes included: homophobia, heterosexy image, labels, the protectors, gotta be me, and the bridge builders.
Gard, M. (2001). "I like smashing people, and I like getting smahsed(sic) myself": addressing issues of masculinity in physical education and sport. What about the boys? issues of masculinity in schools, Buckingham, England, Open University Press, 2001, p.222 234, Total No. of Pages: 13. W. Martino.
Cox, B. and S. Thompson (2001). "Facing the bogey: women, football and sexuality." Football studies (Brisbane, Aust.) 4(2): 7-24.
This article examines the implications for football players of the way in which women's sport is regularly framed within discourses of sexuality. It focuses on a premier league football team in New Zealand comprised of both homosexually and heterosexually identified women. Interviews with players reveal the extent to which homophobia is associated with women's experiences of football and is something that all players have had to confront. While homophobia within women's football can be reduced through the increased visibility of lesbian players and interactions with their heterosexual team-mates, homo-negativity from outside the team is experienced at two levels, based on irrational judgements and purposeful intimidating behaviour directed at sportswomen.
(2001). "Homophobia issue stirs range of debate." NCAA news (Indianapolis, Ind.) 38(23): 4-5.
Silby, C. and S. Smith (2000). Serious issues: the dark side of sports participation. Games girls play: understanding and guiding young female athletes, New York, St. Martin's Press, c2000, p.239 268, Total No. of Pages: 30.
Epperson, D. C. and G. A. Selleck (2000). How to help your children respond to issues of homosexuality in the sports world. Beyond the bleachers: the art of parenting today's athletes, Sugar Land, Tex., Alliance Publications, c2000, p.163 166, Total No. of Pages: 4. D. C. Epperson.
Gives tips to parents on helping their children deal with homosexuality and homophobic attitudes in sport. Includes an exercise and questions for self-assessment.
Australian Sports, C. (2000). Harassment-free sport: guidelines to address homophobia and sexuality discrimination in sport, Belconnen, A.C.T., Australian Sports Commission, 2000, 24 p.
Tarricone, D. (1999). Relationship between homophobia and world view with respect to attitudes and perceptions of women in sports, The University of Connecticut.
Jutel, A. (1999). Strong women, deep closets: lesbians and homophobia in sport. (Review).
Johnson, C. W. (1999). "Living the game of hide and seek: leisure in the lives of gay and lesbian young adults." Leisure/Loisir: Journal of the Canadian Association for Leisure Studies/Revue de l' Association canadienne d' etudes en loisir (Waterloo, Ont.) 24(3/4): 255-278.
Little attention has been given to gays and lesbians in leisure research. Increased understanding of the issues surrounding gay and lesbian people can enhance the leisure of individuals of non-dominant sexual orientations and allow them to construct positive, self-expressive leisure experiences. Using a symbolic interactionist approach, this study explored how gay and lesbian young adults assign meaning to their leisure and what role leisure plays in their identity development. Interviews were conducted with 19 gay and lesbian young adults. Three major themes were identified through constant comparative data analysis: negotiation of comfort within leisure, the experience of homophobia, and a desire for group enclosure in leisure. Implications and suggestions for eliminating heterosexism in leisure are discussed based on these findings.
Griffin, P. (1999). "Lesbians and bisexual women in sport." JOPERD The journal of physical education, recreation and dance (Reston, Va.) 70(4): 53-55;62.
Bredemeier, B. J. L., E. B. Carlton, et al. (1999). "Changers and the changed: moral aspects of coming out in physical education." Quest (Champaign, Ill.) 51(4): 418-431.
In this paper we draw from interviews with four lesbian sportswomen and physical educators whose personal journeys inform us about the difficulties and rewards of challenging homophobia and heterosexism. Our co-participants discussed their life stories in terms of the interrelationships among sport, moral, and lesbian identities and their coming out process. Analyses of these narrations revealed three major themes associated with coming out in sport and physical education settings: integrity, compassion, and community. Each of these themes is discussed in terms of our co-participants' experiences and interpretations of moving from fear and isolation to a sense of community and empowerment.
Dykens, E. M., B. A. Rosner, et al. (1998). "Exercise and sports in children and adolescents with developmental disabilities. Positive physical and psychosocial effects." Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 7(4): 757-71, viii.
This article reviews findings to date on the effects of exercise and sports in children and adolescents with developmental disabilities. Although much work remains, exercise and sports are associated with reduced maladaptive behavior in children with disabilities, as well as with improved physical fitness, self-esteem, and social competence. Improved physical and psychosocial functioning are found in studies of both children and adults with mental retardation, as well as in research on athletes enrolled in Special Olympics International, the largest recreational sport program in the world for persons with developmental disabilities. The review ends with recommendations for promoting recreation and sports in children and adolescents with disabilities.
The entire Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, 6 (2) 1997 was devoted to issues of homophobia in sport. Some of the articles are mentioned here, but the entire journal is useful in research on this topic.
Burroughs, A., Ashburn, L., & Seebohm, L. (1995)"Add sex and stir": Homophobic coverage of women's cricket in Australia. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 19 (3), 266-284.
AB: In January 1994, there occurred one of the most extraordinary events in the history of women's sport in Australia. It was reported on national television and radio that female cricketer Denise Annetts had been dropped from the Australian team and had lodged a complaint over her dismissal with the Anti-Discrimination Board. Her allegations of discrimination on the basis of her heterosexuality and marital status resulted in the sudden ascendancy of women's cricket from media obscurity to the national limelight. This article provides an Australian focus to the growing literature on heterosexism and homophobia in sport. It examines the media's preoccupation with the issue of lesbianism and the concomitant trivialization of women's sport. Most important, it considers whether media coverage of the cricketer's allegations has reinforced existing prejudices to exacerbate homophobia or has prompted discussion and action to combat homophobia in women's sport. In addition, it looks at how a decision made by a sporting body was used to question the nation's antidiscrimination legislation. It is intended that this paper will contribute to discussion aimed at improving sporting opportunities for all women, regardless of their sexual orientation
Cahn, S. (1994). Crushes, competition, and closets: The emergence of homophobia in women's physical education. In, S. Birrell & C. Cole (Eds.), Women, sport and culture, (pp. 327-339). Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics Publishers.
Cahn, S. (1993). From the "Muscle Moll" to the "Butch" ballplayer: Mannishness, lesbianism, and homophobia in U.S. women's sport. Feminsit Studies, 19 (2), 343-368.
AB: This essay explores the historical relationship between lesbianism and sport by tracing the development of the stereotyped "mannish lesbian athlete" and examining its relation to the lived experience of mid-twentieth-century lesbian athletes. It is argued that fears of mannish female sexuality in sport initially centered on the prospect of unbridled heterosexual desire. By the 1930's however, female athletic mannishness began to connote heterosexual failure, usually couched in terms of unattractiveness to men, but also suggesting the possible absence of heterosexual interest. In the view of many physicians, physical educators, sportswriters, male athletic officials and casual observers, strenuous athletic pursuits endangered women and threatened the stability of society. They maintained that women athletes would become manlike, adopting masculine dress, talk, and mannerisms. They also contended that too much exercise would damage female reproductive capacity.
Disch, L, & Kane, M. J. (1996). When a looker is really a bitch: Lisa Olson, sport, and the heterosexual matrix. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 21 (21), 278-307.
Flintoff, A. (1994). Sexism and homophobia in physical education: The challenge for teacher educators. Physical Education Review, 17 (2), 97-105.
Griffin, P. (1998). Strong women, deep closets: Lesbians and homophobia in Sport. Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics.
Galst, L. (1998, September/October). (title). Ms. Magazine, v, pp.
Griffin, P. (1993). Homophobia in women's sports: The fear that divides us. In, G. L. Cohen (Ed.), Women in sport: Issues and controversies, (pp. 193-203). Newbury Park, California: Sage Publications.
Griffin, P. (1993). Homophobia in sport: Addressing the needs of lesbian and gay high school athletes. High School Journal, 77 (1/2), 80-87.
Griffin, P. (1992). Changing the game: Homophobia, sexism, and lesbians in sport. Quest, 44 (2), 251-265.
AB: The purpose of this article is to discuss, from a feminist perspective, the interconnected nature of homophobia and sexism in women's sport. After a brief description of the early 20th-century origins of the lesbian stereotype and the political function of homophobia in a sexist and heterosexist culture, manifestations of homophobia in women's sport are discussed: silence, denial, apology, promotion of a heterosexy image, attacks on lesbians, and preference for male coaches. The underlying beliefs that support homophobia in women's sport are described, and several strategies for confronting homophobia in women's sport are suggested.
Harris, M., & Griffin, J. (1997). Stereotypes and personal beliefs about women physical education teachers. Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, 6 (1), 49-83.
AB: In order to assess their cultural stereotypes and personal beliefs about women physical education teachers, we surveyed 196 individuals attending the 1995 American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD) convention. Respondents felt that most Americans stereotyped women physical educators as masculine, aggressive, athletic, lesbian, and unintellectual. Their personal views were less extreme. Some differences in personal beliefs were found between men and women, and between lesbians, heterosexual men and heterosexual women. Occupation, age, and education were not importantly related to stereotyping. Open ended questions revealed both positive and negative aspects of physical education as a profession for women. Based upon the continued existence of some negative stereotypes, coupled with the low status of women physical educators, we suggest that the profession needs to increase its educational efforts and its appreciation of diversity.
King, S. (1993). The politics of the body and the body politic: Magic Johnson and the ideology of AIDS. Scoiology of Sport, 10 (3), 270-285.
AB: This paper analyzes the discourse surrounding AIDS and HIV in the light of Magic Johnson's public announcement that he was HIV positive. In the context of the New Right backlash of the 1980s, the bodies of Johnson and others have been used to (re)produce specific, narrowly defined messages about the meaning of AIDS and the HIV virus. Commercial and professional sports interests have used this event to enter into a well-established discourse that reproduces and reinforces the dominant messages of homophobia and misogyny surrounding the syndrome.
Krane, V. (1996). Lesbians in sport: Toward acknowledgment, understanding, and theory. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 18 (3), 237-246.
AB: The purpose of this paper is to lay a conceptual foundation for understanding and studying lesbians in sport. To begin to understand lesbians in sport, it is necessary to critically examine the socialization process. Lesbians are socialized within a homonegative and heterosexist society, where they learn homonegative attitudes. The sport environment is even more hostile toward lesbians, thus escalating the negative impact of homonegativism experienced by lesbians in sport compared to nonsport lesbians. These reactions to homonegativism will be manifested through individuals' mental states (e.g., low self-esteem, low confidence, low satisfaction, high stress) or behaviors (e.g., poor sport performance, substance abuse). However, through exposure to positive social support and successful role models, a positive lesbian identity will be developed. The goals of this framework are to consolidate previous empirical literature about lesbians and apply it to sport and to encourage further conceptualization about lesbians in sport.
Kriegh, L, & Kane, M. J. (1997). A novel idea: Portrayals of lesbians in young adult sports fiction. Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, 6 (2), 23-62.
Lenskyj, H. (1995). Out in the field: Lesbians in sport fiction. Aethlon: The Journal of Sport Literature, 12 (2), 99-112.
Lenskyj, H. (1995). Sport and the threat to gender boundaries. Sporting Traditions, 12 (1), 47-60.
AB: Discusses sexuality issues confronting women's sport from a radical feminist and neo-marxist viewpoint.
Lenskyj, H. (1991). Combating homophobia in sport and physical education. Sociology of Sport Journal, 8 (1), 61-69.
AB: The discrimination experienced by women in sport in North America has been well documented (e.g., Hall, 1987; Lenskyj, 1986; Uhlir, 1987), and the gains made in the last two decades owe much to the efforts of feminists both inside and outside sport. However, the situation of lesbians in sport has only recently received attention in academic and professional sport circles, and then only as one aspect of sportswomen's private lives for which they are subjected to discrimination. And although feminist scholarship of the 1970s and 1980s has investigated the political implications of lesbianism in considerable depth, the specific concerns of lesbians in sport contexts have for the most part been neglected. This paper examines the discrimination faced by lesbians in sport and develops a radical feminist analysis of these experiences. Recent developments in national sports organizations in North America are presented as case studies and analyzed in terms of their political perspective and potential.
Messner, M. (1996). Studying up on sex. Sociology of Sport Journal, 13 (3), 221-237.
AB: Although there has been some scholarly scrutiny of gays and lesbians in sport, there has been very little "studying up" on the social construction of heterosexuality in sport. In this paper, I begin by drawing on recent historical research on sexuality to reflect on the significance of the emergence of the heterosexual at precisely the time in history when the institution of modern sport was being forged. Next, I critically examine recent theoretical issues raised by poststructuralists, postmodernists, and queer theorists. I argue for a materialist examination of sexuality as a key linking process in a socially structured matrix of domination along lines of race, class, and gender. Finally, I interrogate a "sexual story" as an example of one way the meanings of heterosexuality might be analyzed within sport
Sabo, D. (1994). The politics of homophobia in sport. In M. A. Messner & D. F. Sabo (Eds.), Sex, violence & power in sports: Rethinking masculinity (pp. 101-112). Markham, Ontario: Fitzhenry & Whiteside.
Mott, R. D. (1996). Homophobia: It is time the issue is addressed at the institution level. Coaching Women’s Basketball, 10 (6), 20-22.
Mott, R. D. (1996). Homophobia now out in the open as an issue for discussion. NCAA News, 33 (18), 1;18.
Phillips, J. (1996). Intolerable: Does the Ben Wright saga signal an end to the fight against homophobia in women's sports? Women’s Sports & Fitness, 18 (4), 23-24.
Potera, C.& Kort, M. (1986). Are women coaches an endangered species?. Women’s Sports & Fitness, 8 (9), 34-35.
AB: Addresses the decline in the number of women high school coaches in the United States since 1973. Explains why Title IX is a major reason for this decline. Discusses additional reasons for this phenomenon, including the traditional view of leadership and power as male traits, the lack of assertiveness shown by women when applying for jobs, the heavy personal demands of coaching, the homophobia of athletic directors, and the lack of experience of women relative to men in the coaching field. Describes a number of programs that have been organized throughout the country in an attempt to reverse the trend.
Rotella, R., Murray, M. (1991). Homophobia, the world of sport, and sport psychology consulting. Sport Psychologist, 5 (4), 355-364.
AB: Homophobia has been an issue of concern in the world of sport for decades. It has had a negative impact on the world of athletes, coaches, and sport psychology consultants. Both heterosexuals and homosexuals are affected. Homophobia has kept some from striving for excellence while interfering with the hindering some who pursued success in sport. Specialists in sport psychology who claim to care about the development of human potential in sport must be concerned about the impact of homophobia. An honest look at attitudes, beliefs, and values is a necessary step forward if change is to occur. A move in the direction of healthy acceptance of differing sexual preferences is suggested, along with an effective philosophy for doing so. A wish list for the future is included.
Squires, S.; Sparkes, A. (1996). Circles of silence: Sexual identity in physical education and sport. Sport, Education and Society, 1 (1), 77-101.
Terwilliger, C. (1995). Getting it straight: How homophobia hurts women in sports. Melpomene Journal, 14 (1), 5-8.