Strength Training
Alfredson,H., Pietila, T. & Lorentzon. (1996). Chronic achilles tendinitis and calf muscle strength. American journal of sports medicine, 24 (6), 829 833.
AB: We evaluated 10 men and 3 women (mean age, 44 plus/minus 8.5 years) with chronic Achilles tendinitis who underwent surgical treatment. Surgery was followed by immobilization in a weightbearing below the knee plaster cast for 6 weeks and a stepwise increasing strength training program. We prospectively studied calf muscle strength on the injured and noninjured sides preoperatively and at 16, 26, and 52 weeks postoperatively. Preoperatively, concentric peak torque in dorsiflexion at 90 deg/sec and plantar flexion at 225 deg/sec was significantly lower on the injured side. Postoperatively, concentric plantar flexion peak torque on the injured side increased significantly between weeks 16 and 26 at 90m deg/sec but was significantly lower than the noninjured side from weeks 16 to 52 at 90 and 225 deg/sec. Dorsiflexion peak torque at 90 and 225 deg/sec increased between weeks 0 and 26 and was significantly higher on the injured side at week 26. Eccentric plantar flexion peak torque was significantly lower on the injured side at week 26 but not at 1 year. This prospective study demonstrates that 6 months of postoperative rehabilitation for chronic Achilles tendinitis is not enough to recover concentric and eccentric plantar flexion muscle strength compared with the noninjured side.
Almasbakk,B. & Hoff, J. (1996). Coordination, the determinant of velocity specificity? Journal of Applied Physiology, 81 (5), 2046 2052.URL: http://www.jap.org
Baptista,F., Sardinha, L. & De Matos,A. (1995). Relationship of age, body composition, muscle strength and calcium intake to bone mineral density in 59 75 yr old women. Motricidade humana/Portuguese Journal of Human Performance Studies, 11 (2), 17 27
AB: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships of age, fat mass, lean mass, body mass index (BMI), muscle strength and calcium intake with total and regional bone mineral density (BMD) in postmenopausal women. Subjects were 51 white females, aged 59 65 years (67.1 plus/minus 4.5 yr, 63.5 plus/minus 7.8 kg, 152.1 plus/minus 5.5 cm), with no history of disorders or medication use likely to influence bone or calcium metabolism. Whole body (software verision V5.67), lumbar (verison 7.1) and proximal femur (verison 7.1) dual energy X ray absorptionmetry scans (DXA, model QDR 1500, Hologic Inc., Waltman, MA) were performed to assess total body, lumbar spine (L2 L4), and proximal femur (neck, greater trochanter, and Ward's triangle) BMD. Total fat mass (Kg), total lean mass free of bone (TLMfb) were measured by DXA. BMI was computed as weight (Kg)/height (m)2. To assess calcium intake a questionnaire and a computerized nutrient data base program were used. Muscle strength was tested by a one repetition maximum (1 RM) on eight strength training machines corresponding to also eight different movements. Bivariate correlations and multiple regression analysis were used to analyse the data. Total body BMD was positively related to weight (r = 0.33, p is less than 0.05) and total lean mass (r = 0.51, p is less than 0.050. Similar relationships considering weight and TLMfb were found for proximal femur (r = 0.32, p is less than 0.05, r = 0.51, p is less than 0.05) femoral neck (r = 0.44, p is less than 0.05, r = 0.58, p is less than 0.05) and greater trochanter (r = 0.31, p is less than 0.05, r = 0.52, p is less than 0.05) BMD. Lumbar spine and Ward's triangle BMD correlated only with total lean mass (r = 0.34, p is les than 0.05, r = 0.29, p is less than 0.050. Total fat mass was not an independent correlate of BMD at any site. BMI was correlated with femoral neck (r = 0.28, p is less than 0.050. Muscle strength, with exeption of arm curl for femoral neck BMD (r = 0.28, p is less than 0.05), dietary intake of calcium, age and years postmenopause did not emerge as significant predictors of any BMD. Regression analyses indicated that total lean mass contributed to total body (p is less than 0.0001), lumbar spine (p is less than 0.0153), femoral neck (p is less than 0.0001), greater trochanter (p is less than 0.0001), and Ward's triangle (p is less than 0.0388) BMD. These findings suggest that in this group of older women I) total lean mass was a better predictor of BMD at any site than body weight, BMI or total fat mass, II) the associations between total lean mass and BMD did not reflect associations between muscle strength and bone density, and, III) age, years postmenopause and calcium intake do not seem to influence BMD at any site.
Bell,G., Syrotuik, D.,Socha, T., Maclean, I. & Quinney, H. A. (1997). Effect of strength training and concurrent strength and endurance training on strength, testosterone, and cortisol. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 11 (1), 57 64. URL:http://www.humankinetics.com/
AB: Eleven subjects (6 M, 5 F) strength trained 3 times a week for 16 weeks, and 22 subjects (14 M, 8 F) did likewise while also performing endurance training 3 times a week on alternate days. All variables were tested every 4 weeks for 16 weeks. Significant gender differences were observed for bilateral incline leg press and bench press 1 RM, serum testosterone (T), urinary free cortisol (UC), ventilation thershold (VT), and VO2max. There was a significant increase in bilateral incline leg press and bench press 1 RM for both training groups and genders. Relative gains in bilateral incline leg press and bench press 1 RM were similar for men. For women the gains in bilateral incline leg press 1 RM, but not bench press, were lower with concurrent training than with strength training only. No significant differences in T were observed with either program. UC was significantly elevated at 8 weeks for men and remained so after concurrent training, but decreased to baseline levels after strength training. UC decreased in the strength training women at 8 weeks but increased for women in both groups at 16 weeks. VT and VO2max increased at 16 weeks of concurrent training. This indicates there are differences in strength and hormonal adaptations between men and women with concurrent training and strength training only.
Ben Sira, D, Ayalon, A, Tavi, M. (1995). The effect of different types of strength training on concentric strength in women. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 9 (3), 143 148. URL: http://www.humankinetics.com/
The effects of 4 types of resistance strength training on concentric strength and thigh girth in young women were compared. The 4 treatment groups were concentric only (Conc, n=12), eccentric only (Eccn, n=10), conventional (Conv, n=8), and supramaximal eccentric training (SmET, n=8). Another group of subjects did not train and served as controls (n=10). Subjects trained on a knee extension Schnell machine twice weekly for 8 weeks, performing 3 sets of 10 reps with a starting load of 65 percent of 1 RM. The load was increased by 5 percent every 2 weeks. ANCOVA indicated that SmET and Conv improved significantly in relative (1 RM/body weight) dynamic strength when compared with initial strength levels. Similar though not statistically significant trends were observed for Conc and Eccn. However, none of the differences among the 4 training groups were significant. There was no change in thigh girth in any of the training groups.
Brown, C. (1996). Strength training for women: some hormonal considerations. Track Coach, (137), 4367 4368, 4370.
Byrd, R, Pierce, K, Centry, R, Swisher, M. (1996). Predicting the caloric cost of the parallel back squat in women. Journal of strength and conditioning research, 10 (3), 184 185. URL: http://www.humankinetics.com/
AB: This study examined the relationship between work done and caloric cost during the parallel back squat. While much data are available on caloric and oxygen costs of jogging, cycling, and other physical activities, relatively little is known about the caloric cost of specific weight training exercises. Subjects were 25 women experienced in squatting through formal weight training classes or athletic conditioning workouts. Oxygen consumption was measured by standard open circuit spirometry, nonprotein RER was used to determine caloric expenditure. External work done was calculated as weight X repetitions X vertical distance traversed by the bar. The latter was determined by analyzing videotaped exercise sessions. An R of 0.91 for external work done and net caloric cost (gross resting), significant at 0.001, indicated that caloric cost during squats can be predicted with an acceptable degree of accuracy. The regression equation calculated was: kilocalories = 0.071.kgm+2.41.
Champion, L., Ryan, M. (1997). Quality resistance training for women. Network, 10 (1), 28 30.
Connelly, D. M, Vandervoort, A. A. (1997) Effects of detraining on knee extensor strength and functional mobility in a group of elderly women. The Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, 26 (6), 340 346.
AB: Long term detraining results for individuals 75 years and older are needed. The purpose of this study was to assess long term detraining effects on quadriceps strength and functional mobility in nursing home residents. Ten women (mean = 82.8 years) who completed a strength training program were reassessed 1 year later. Clinical methods were used to remeasure dynamic and isometric quadriceps strength and functional mobility. One repetition maximum quadriceps strength declined 68.3 percent (p less than 0.05) from trained values. Isometric strength losses were 29.8 percent at 90 degrees (p less than 0.05), 28.7 percent at 60 degrees (p less than 0.05), and 24.4 percent at 20 degrees (p less than 0.05) of knee flexion 1 year postexercise. Fast paced walking, self selected paced walking, and timed up and go speed decreased 28.6 percent (p less than 0.05), 19.5 percent (p less than 0.05), and 54.1 percent (not significant), respectively, from posttraining. One year vs. baseline, isometric strength decreased 0 14.3 percent, dynamic strength decreased 48.9 percent, and functional mobility declined 16.5 20.7 percent despite an intervening training program. An increased strength loss rate beyond the age of 80 years may be a major factor influencing functional independence.
Cordova, M. L. (1996). Steroid use and the female athlete. Strength and Conditioning, 18 (2), 17 19.
Dalton, N. J, Wallace, J. E. (1996). Strength testing protocols for college age women. Strength and Conditioning, 18 (2), 7 10.
DeMichele, P. L, Pollock, M. L, Graves, J. E, Foster, D. N, Carpenter, D, Garzarella, L, Brechue, W, Fulton, M. (1997). Isometric torso rotation strength: effect of training frequency on its development. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 78 (1), 64 69.
AB: To examine training frequency's effect on torso rotation muscle strength. The study followed a pretest posttest randomized group design. University laboratory. Subjects, 33 men (age 30 plus/minus 11 yr) and 25 women age 28 plus/minus 10 yr) with no history of low back pain, volunteered to participate in the study and were tested for isometric (IM) torso rotation strength before (T1) and after (T2) 12 weeks of training. Measurements of maximal voluntary IM torso rotation torque (N.m) were made through a 108 degree range of motion (54 degrees, 36 degrees, 18 degrees, 0 degrees, 18 degrees, 36 degrees, 54 degrees). Subjects were stratified by peak torque at T1, and randomized to a nonexercising control group (C, n= 10), or groups that trained once a week (1X/wk, n = 16), twice a week (2X/wk, n = 17), or three times a week (3X/wk, n = 15), and all groups were similar in strength. Training consisted of 8 to 12 repetitions of full range dynamic variable resistance exercise to volitional fatigue, for both left and right rotation. To determine the best training frequency for the development of torso rotation strength. Relative improvements (average increase in strength gained at each angle) for the training groups were 4.9 percent, 16.3 percent, and 11.9 percent for the 1, 2, and 3X/wk groups, respectively. The 1X/wk group did not increase in IM torso rotation strength compared to the control group at any angle. Both the 2 and 3X/wk groups increased their IM torso rotation strength compared to the control group at all but one angle. There were no significant differences in IM torso rotation strength between the groups that trained 2 or 3X/wk groups increased their dynamic training load significantly more than the 1X/wk group. Posttraining dynamic strength was not different between training frequencies of 2 and 3X/wk. Therefore, training the rotary torso muscles 2X/wk is recommended.
Dornemann, T.M. (1995). The effect of a weight training program on the bone density of women aged 40 50 years. Microform Publications, International Institute for Sport and Human Performance, University of Oregon, Eugene, Ore, 1995, 1 microfiche (88 fr.).
AB: The present exploratory study examined the effects of a six month weight training program (n is 12) on bone density. The results were compared to a control group (n is 14). The weight training consisted of exercises specifically designed to stress the spine and hips. Weight training produced mean strength gains of 159 percent (overhead press), 85.56 percent (leg press), and 91.19 percent (calf raises). Both groups experienced losses in wrist bone density of 0.71 percent and 1.04 percent , controls and weight training groups, respectively. Both groups had gains in hip bone averaging 1.1 percent in the controls and 1.46 percent in the weight training group (F(1,24) is 3.06, p is .093). The weight training group experienced an increase in bone density of 1.62 percent in the spine, at the same time the control group had a 0.36 percent decrease (F(1,24) is 3.18, p is .087). These results suggest that even a short term weight training can improve bone density in peri-menopausal women.
Faigenbaum, A. D, Nye McKeown, J. S, Morilla, C. R. (1996). Coaching athletes with eating disorders. Strength and Conditioning, 18 (2), 22 30.
Fleck, S. J, Kraemer, W. J. (1997). Designing resistance training programs. 2nd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers.
CONTENTS: [1] Basic principles of resistance training and exercise prescription: basic definitions, voluntary maximal muscular actions, intensity, training volume, periodization, progressive overload, rest periods, speed specificity, muscle action, muscle group specificity, energy source specificity, safety aspects, selected readings, [2] Types of strength training: isometrics, dynamic constant external resistance training, variable resistance training, isokinetics, eccentric training, plyometrics, comparison of training types, summary, selected readings, [3] Muscle physiology: the neuromuscular unit, the motor unit, bioenergetics, muscle fiber types, proprioceptors, summary, selected readings, [4] Integrating other fintess components: endurance training, anaerobic sprint and interval training, flexibility training, integrating the fitness components, summary, selected readings, [5] Individualizing exercise prescriptions: setting and evaluating goals, maintenance of training goals, unrealistic goals, individualization, exercise prescription, needs analysis, acute program variables, chronic program manipulations: periodization, administrative concerns, safety issues, exercise prescription case studies, summary, selected readings, [6] Resistance training systems: multiple set system, single set system, bulk system, cheat system, exhaustion set system, forced repetition system, burn system, circuit program, peripheral heart action system, triset system, compound set system, double progressive system, flushing, functional isometrics, triangle program, light to heavy system, heavy to light system, multipoundage system, negative system, super overload system, priority system, rest pause system, split routine system, blitz program, isolated exercise system, super pump system, super setting systems, super slow system, comparison of systems, summary, selected readings, [7] Adaptations to resistance training: muscle fiber adaptations, nervous system adaptations, force velocity curve, power development, cardiovascular adaptations, body compositional changes, bioenergetic adaptations, endocrine system adaptations, summary, selected readings, [8] Detraining: cessation of resistance training, reduction of training volume, effects on motor performance, mechanisms of strength loss, effect of muscle action type on cellular adaptations, in season detraining, in season resistance programs, long detraining periods, detraining the bulked up athlete, summary, selected readings, [9] Women and resistance training: gender differences in absolute strength, gender differences in relative strength, gender differences in power output, training effects, misconceptions about women and resistance training, endocrine system adaptations to physical training, general needs analysis, summary, selected readings, [10] Children and resistance training: strength gains, muscle hypertrophy, bone development, concerns about injury, growth cartilage damage, acute injuries, chronic injuries, programs for children, exercise tolerance, needs analysis, developmental differences, individualized resistance training programs, copying elite athletic programs, program cycling or periodization, presenting the program philosophy, equipment modification, equipment adjustments, appropriate resistance increases, summary, selected readings, [11] Resistance training for seniors: age related loss of muscular strength and power, mechanisms of muscle strength and power reductions with age, training adaptations with age, developing a resistance training program, needs analysis, summary, selected readings, [12] Resistance training sports: Olympic weight lifting, power lifting, power production: weight lifting versus power lifting, body building, anabolic drug use, summary, selected readings.
Godard, M. P, Wygand, J. W, Carpinelli, R. N, Catalano, S, Otto, R. M. (1998). Effects of accentuated eccentric resistance training on concentric knee extensor strength. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 12 (1), 26 29. URL: http://www.humankinetics.com/
AB: This study tested the hypothesis that concentric resistance exercise along with an accentuated eccentric load would elicit greater increases in concentric strength than training with a similar amount of resistance for concentric and nonaccentuated eccentric muscle actions. Pre and posttraining concentric one repetition max (1 RM) of the left knee extensors was used to measure strength in 28 untrained young men and women. Resistance for concentric and eccentric muscle actions was a constant external torque initially set at 80 percent of the concentric 1 RM for subjects in the Con/Ecc group. Resistance for the eccentric component of the Con/Ecc+ group was 40 percent greater than their concentric resistance. Both groups trained with one set of 8 12 unilateral repetitions (3 sec concentric, 3 sec eccentric) to muscular fatigue twice a week for 10 weeks on a Cybex 6000 dynamometer. There were significant increases in concentric knee extensor torque in both groups, with no significant further enhancement of maximal concentric torque from training with an accentuated eccentric resistance in previously untrained persons.
Gravelle, B. L. (1995). Physiological and neuromuscular adaptation to concurrent strength and endurance training. University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor, Mich, 1995, 2 microfiches.
Hartard, M, Haber, P, Ilieva, D, Preisinger, E, Seidl, G, Huber, J. (1996). Systematic strength training as a model of therapeutic intervention: a controlled trial in postmenopausal women with osteopenia. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, 75 (1), 21-28.
AB: Physical exercise is often recommended as a therapeutic tool to combat pre and postmenopausal loss of bone density. However, the relationship between training dosage (intensity, duration, frequency) and the effect on bone density still is undergoing discussion. Furthermore, the exercise quantification programs are often described so inadequately that they are neither quantitatively nor qualitatively reproducible. The aim of this investigation was to determine whether a clearly defined training of muscle strength, under defined safety aspects, peformed only twice weekly, can counteract bone density loss in women with postmenopausal osteopenia. Data from 16 women in the training group (age, 63.6 plus/minus 62 yr) and 15 women in the control group (age, 67.4 plus/minus 9.7 yr), of comparable height and weight, were evaluated. Strength training was performed for 6 mo as continually adapted strength training, providing an intensity of about 70 percent of each test person's one repetition maximum. Bone mineral density of lumbar vertebrae 2 to 4 and the femoral neck was measured by dual energy x ray absorptiometry. Maximum peformance in watts and parameters of hemodynamics were controlled with a bicycle ergometer test to maximal effort. In addition, metabolic data were assessed. In the lumbar spine and femoral neck, the training group showed no significant changes, whereas the control group demonstrated a significant loss of bone mineral density, especially in the femoral neck. The strength increase was highly significant in all exercised muscle groups, rising to about 70 percent above the pretraining status (P is less than 0.001). Heart rate and blood pressure data indicated a slight economization, and metabolism was not significantly influenced. Based on these findings, we conclude that continually adapted strength training is an effective, safe, reproducible, and adaptable method of therapeutic strength training, following only two exercise sessions per week.
Heffron, M, Davey, R, Cochrane, T. (1997). Weight training and bone mass in post menopausal women. Sports Exercise and Injury, 3 (3), 143 149.
AB: The effect of weight training on the skeletal status of 15 post menopausal women (mean age 55 plus/minus 6 years) was studied over 10 weeks. Fourteen post menopausal women (mean age 61 plus/minus 5 years) currently attending aerobic dance classes acted as "controls". Groups were matched on age at, and years since menopause. Bone mineral density (BMD) at the forearm, lumbar spine and hip were measured absorptiometrically. Broadband ultrasound attenuation (BUA) was used to assess skeletal changes at the os calcis. Considerable strength gains were seen in the weight training group, but no significant changes in absorptiometrically assessed BMD were found in either group. There was a significant increase in BUA (+5.4 percent, P is less than 0.05) at the os calcis in those who attended greater than or equal to 10 sessions of the weight training programme, and this measure was significantly greater than for the controls' post intervention. This study suggests that weight training exercise may positively effect skeletal status at the os calcis in healthy post menopausal women.
Hoffman, J., & Klafeld, S. (1998). The effect of resistance training on injury rate and performance in a self defense instructors course for women. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 12 (1), 52 56. URL: http://www.humankinetics.com
AB: This study examined the effect of a resistance training (RT) program on injury rate and performance in a 10 week self defense instructors course for women (n=28). Thirteen subjects were assigned to RT while the other 15 were involved in a running program. Subjects were assumed to be randomly distributed between both groups. The 1 RM strength in bench press (BP) and squat were measured pre and post. Injury rate was determined by number of medical complaints relating to the course, and through pain/soreness questionnaires at post. Self defense performance was evlauted in skill and technique (S&T), instructional ability (IA), and 2 types of combat tests: F1 and F2. Total score was also computed. Strength improved in RT for both BP and squat. Only BP strength differed significantly between groups at post. RT scored higher in total score, IA, and F1. Although there were no significant differences in injury rate or pain/soreness between groups, RT had a consistent trend for reduced incidence of pain and injury. Also, significant correlations were seen between 1 RM BP and total score, IA, S&T, and F2. Results suggest RT may enhance self defense performance and instructional ability and reduce the incidence of pain and injury during a self defense course.
Hunter, S, Gwinn, T, Thompson, M. (1996). Effect of high resistance strength training on functional capacity of elderly women abstract. Sports Medicine Australia, 212 213.
Hurley, B. (1995). Strength training in the elderly to enhance health status. Medicine, Exercise, Nutrition and Health, 4 (4), 217 229.
AB: The loss of muscular strength, muscle mass, and bone mass with age have important implications for health status as well as functional abilities. Properly designed strength training (ST) programs can safely increase strength and muscle mass in older men and women. The effect of ST on many important risk factors for age related diseases and on the prevention or treatment of disabilities has recently been studies. Some examples of these factors include a loss of joint range of motion (flexibility), low bone mineral density (BMD), osteoarthritis, abnormal lipoprotein lipid profiles, hypertension, glucose intolerance, insulin resistance, a low resting metabolic rate, and a slow gastrointestinal transit time. There is no evidence that ST alone will improve flexibility in major muscle groups among the elderly. The decline in muscle strength and muscle mass with age or inactivity is associated with the loss of BMD and possible bone fractures. There is now evidence that heavy resistance ST can increase regional BMD in older men. This finding is not consistent in either premenopausal or postmenopausal women, however, a recent study suggests that ST can prevent age related losses of BMD in postmenopausal women. There are many studies on the effects of ST on blood lipoprotein lipid profiles and resting blood pressure in young and middle aged subjects, but not in the elderly. There is no evidence that ST changes risk status for coronary heart disease (CHD) through its effect on blood lipid profiles or blood pressure, but there are no well controlled studies using older subjects with hyperlipidemia and/or hypertension. There is a consistent improvement in insulin action following short term ST, which can result in an improvement in glucose tolerance. In this context, ST is just as effective as aerobic exercise training. Both total body and regional fat free mass are increased and total body and regional fat mass are reduced in older men as a result of a total body ST program. However, a recent study has raised some uncertainty about whether the increased fat free mass constitutes changes in muscle mass. Nevertheless, these findings, along with a new report that ST reduces intra abdominal fat in older women, have important health implications. Gastrointestinal (GI) transit time slows with age and is associated with an increased prevalence of constipation, diverticulosis, and colon cancer. One preliminary report indicates that ST accelerates gastrointestinal transit time by 56 percent, which supports the need for more studies to determine whether ST could become a promising intervention for reducing risks of age related GI motility disorders. There are no data available to determine the optimal ST program for improving specific indicators of health status in the elderly. Therefore, only general guidelines can be recommended at this time.
Hyatt, G. (1996). Strength training for the aging adult. Activities, Adaptation & Aging, 20 (3), 27 36.
AB: Both men and women can retain muscle strength into old age by performing resistance training exercise, with marked improvements in strength achieved in relatively short periods of time. In older adult populations, muscle strength and endurance are important for maintaining quality of life and functional independence. This paper addresses strength training exercise prescription, how to get started, exercise equipment, and safety considerations.
Kuramoto, A.K. (1995). Muscular endurance in women through adulthood: a predictor of muscular strength. Microform Publications, International Institute for Sport and Human Performance, University of Oregon, Eugene, Ore, 1995, 2 microfiches (99 fr.).
AB: The prediction of midback muscular strength (1 RM) using relative muscular endurance was examined in women. Seventy three subjects were divided into three age groups of 20 30 yr (Group 1), 40 50 yr (Group 2), and 60 70 yr (Group 3). Testing was performed on a constant resistance lat pulldown machine. One way ANOVA revealed significant differences between age groups for repetitions. Post hoc comparisons showed Group 3 completed significantly less repetitions than Group 1 and 2. No significant differences were noted between Group 1 and 2. l RM prediction equations were developed by combining Group 1 and 2 and treating Group 3 separately. The best predictors for Group 1 and 2 were repetitions (REPS), muscular endurance weight load (ME WT) and age (AGE). Group 1 and 2 prediction equation: l RM is 2.417 plus ( 0.117 x AGE) plus (0.820 x REPS) plus (1.295 x ME WT), R is .95, Adjusted R2 is .89, SEE is 1.85 kg. Group 3 prediction equation: l RM is 3.730 plus (0.870 x REPS) plus (1.092 x ME WT), R is .91, Adjusted R2 is .81, SEE is 2.05 kg.
Lynes, L.K. (1995). The effect of resistance training on resting blood pressure in hypertensive women. Microform Publications, International Institute for Sport and Human Performance, University of Oregon, Eugene, Ore, 1995, 3 microfiches.
AB: The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of a short term resistance training program on physiological (resting blood pressure, VO2max, muscular strength and body composition) and psychological (stress reactivity, perception of daily hassles, self esteem, physical self efficacy and hostility) factors associated with elevated pressure in sedentary premenopausal women. Four volunteer females (age range is 28 43 years), selected from an initial pool of 89 individuals, participated in a 12 week low to moderate circuit weight training program (60 minutes/session 1, three sessions/week 1). Duration remained constant and intensity was adjusted periodically to maintain a relative workload of 40 percent 1 RM. Prior to, half way, and immediately following the training program, resting blood pressure and muscular strength were reassessed. Body composition, estimated VO2max, and the psychological variables were measured prior to and upon completion of the program. The data were presented in case study form and each case was treated separately. For each case, subject description and the effect of training on physiological and psychological factors were presented and discussed. In addition, overall data were examined and compared graphically. Within the limitations of this investigation, the conclusions reached through data analysis of the population in this study were as follows: a) hypertension females can safely engage in a moderate intensity resistance training program without negative effects on resting blood pressure. Furthermore, this type of program may elicit beneficial changes in resting blood pressure levels in women with mild hypertension, b) resistance training generally produced marked increases in muscular strength and positive changes in body composition and estimated VO2max, and c) circuit weight training was found to moderately decrease daily hassles ant hostility scores, and to increase self esteem and physical self efficacy scores in hypertensive females.
Morgan, A. L, Ellison, J. D, Chandler, M. P, Chodzko Zajko, W. J. (1995). The supplemental benefits of strength training for aerobically active postmenopausal women. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 3 (4), 332 339. URL: http://www.humankinetics.com/
AB: This study examined the supplemental benefits of strength training in aerobically active postmenopausal women. Eighteen women (61 71 yrs) who had been participating in regular aerobic exercise for the preceding 8 months were randomly assigned to control (n = 9) and experimental (n = 9) groups. Both groups continued aerobic exercise 3 times a week for the 8 week training period. In addition, the experimental group performed 3 sets (8 12 repetitions) of standard knee extension and flexion exercises at 80 percent of their 1 repetition maximum (1 RM). In the experimental group, highly significant increases in knee flexion and extnesion strength were observed. No changes in strength were noted in the control subjects. There were no significant changes in body composition for either group. The data suggest that aerobically active older individuals can greatly increase strength with resistance training, which is consistent with recent recommendations that resistance training should be used to supplement aerobic exercise.
Morganti, C.M., Nelson, M.E., Fiatarone, M.A., Dallal, G.E., Economos, C.D., Crawford, B.M., Evans, W.J. (1995). Strength improvements with 1 yr of progressive resistance training in older women. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27 (6), 906 912.
AB: Thirty nine healthy women (59.5 plus/minus 0.9 yr) were randomized to either a control group (CON) or a progressive resistance training group (PRT) that trained twice weekly for 12 months. PRT trained at 80 percent or more (average of 84 percent) of their most recent one repetition maximium (1RM) on the lateral pull down (LPD), knee extensor (KE), and double leg press (DLP) apparatus. One RM was measured for each exercise once monthly in PRT and at baseline, midstudy, and the end of study in CON. One RM significantly increased in PRT for all muscle groups trained compared to CON. Increases of 73.7 plus/minus 12 percent, 35.1 plus/minus 3 percent, and 77.0 plus/minus 5 percent, respectively, for KE, DLP, and LPD in PRT and 12.7 percent plus/minus 8 percent, 3.7 percent plus/minus 3 percent, and 18.4 percent plus/minus 4 percent, respectively, in CON were observed. Approximately 50 percent of the gains in KE and LPD and 40 percent in the DLP were seen in first 3 months of the study. In all three exercises, strength gains in PRT continued over the entire 12 month period. These data indicate that high intensity strength training results in substantial, continual increases in strength in postmenopausal women for at least 12 months, with the greatest gains seen in the first 3 months of training.
Newby Fraser, P., Mora, J.M. (1995). Paula Newby Fraser's peak fitness for women. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers.
AB: CONTENTS: [1] Achieving peak fitness as a woman, [2] Investing a peak fitness, [3] Flexibility training, [4] Strength training, [5] Cross training, [6] The mental edge, [7] Resting, recovering, and eating right, [8] Your peak fitness workout schedule, [9] Competing at your best.
Nichols, J. F, Hitzelberger, L. M, Sherman, J. G, Patterson, P. (1995). Effects of resistance training on muscular strength and functional abilities of community dwelling older adults. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 3 (3), 238 250. URL: http://www.humankinetics.com/
AB: This study examined the efficacy of a progressive resistance exercise program, using equal concentric/eccentric (CE) or greater eccentric/concentric (GE) workloads, for increasing strength and improving functional abilities of community dwelling older adults. Sixty men and women were randomly assigned to one of three groups: CE, GE, or control. All strength testing and training took place on six Lifecircuit machines. Functional tests included a bag carry, weighted stair climb, shelf task 1 RM, and static balance. Significant interactions in strength tests were noted for the chest, back, and shoulder exercises. GE improved in shoulder strength more than CE and control. For functional measures, all weight trainers were grouped and compared to controls. A significant interaction occurred for the stair climb and balance with the exercise groups decreasing stair climb time by 11 percent and increasing balance time by 26 percent. Relative improvements by weight trainers of 12 percent for the shelf task and 7 percent for the bag carry were not significant. These data indicate that a moderate intensity resistance program can have positive effects on tasks required for everyday function.
Nichols, J.F., Nelson, K.P., Peterson, K.K., Sartoris, D.J. (1995). Bone mineral density responses to high intensity strength training in active older women. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 3 (1), 26-38.
AB: The purpose of this investigation was to determine the effects of high intensity strength training on bone mineral density (BMD) of 34 non estrogen repleted, active women over 60 years of age. The study was designed as a randomized, nonblinded trial in which subjects were stratified into rank ordered pairs by level of physical activity, then randomly assigned into either a weight training (WT) or a control (CON) group. BMD of the spine (L2 L4), hip, and total body was assessed at 0, 6, and 12 months by dual energy x ray absorptiometry. Group by time repeated measures ANOVA demonstrated no effect of weight training on BMD, despite marked gains in muscular strength for all exercises. The high intensity weight training utilized in this study did not induce positive changes in BMD of the hip and spine of previously active, non estrogen repleted older women. However, the protocol was safe, enjoyable, and highly effective in increasing muscular strength.
O'Hagan, F. T, Sale, D. G, MacDougall, J. D, Garner, S. H. (1995). Response to resistance training in young women and men. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 16 (5), 314 321.
AB: Six women and 6 men trained the elbow flexors 3 days per week for 20 wks, one arm performing in each session 3 5 sets of 10 maximal concentric actions on an accommodating resistance device, the other arm 3 5 sets of 8 12 coupled eccentric/concentric actions on a weight training device. With results collapsed across the two training modes, the women made significantly (p less than 0.05) greater relative increases than men in strength measured on the weight (116 vs. 46 percent) and accommodating (99 vs. 46 percent) resistance devices, and greater absolute (3.5 vs. 1.3 N.m) and relative (13.7 vs. 3.2 percent) increases in strength measured on an isokinetic dynamometer. Absolute (cm2) and relative (percent) biceps, brachialis, and total elbow flexor cross sectional area (from CT scans) increased significantly, however, the women's vs. men's respective relative and absolute increases did not differ significantly: biceps (13 vs. 7 percent, 0.9 vs. 1.0 cm2), brachialis (53 vs. 31 percent, 2.1 vs. 2.3 cm2), and total (26 vs. 15 percent, 3.1 vs. 3.3 cm2) flexor area. Biceps type I and II fiber area, and the II/I area ratio did not increase significantly. The data indicate that in response to the same short term training program, muscle size increases similarly in women and men but women make greater relative increases in strength.
O'Hagan, F. T, Sale, D. G, MacDougall, J. D, Garner, S. H. (1995). Comparative effectiveness of accommodating and weight resistance training modes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27 (8), 1210 1219.
AB: Six men and six women trained the elbow flexors of both arms 3 d.wk 1 for 20 wk. In each training session, one arm did 3 5 sets of 10 maximal concentric actions on an accommodating resistance device (ARD), the other arm 3 5 sets of 8 12 coupled eccentric/concentric actions (repetitions) to volitional failure (8 12 RM) on a weight resistance device (WRD). The average "intensity" (force of concentric actions) was approximately 1.25 times greater in ARD training, the average "volume" (number of actions X force of actions) 1.6 times greater in WRD training, and the time required to complete a training session the same for each. Both types of training produced significant increases in a single maximum weight lift (1 RM on the WRD), in the peak force of a single maximal concentric action measured on the ARD and an isovelocity dynamometer, and in biceps, brachialis, and total elbow flexor cross sectional area (CSA). Biceps Type I and II fiber area did not change significantly. WRD training produced greater increases than ARD training in the 1 RM test on the WRD and in brachialis CSA. The data indicate that both of these common training regimens effectively increase strength and muscle mass, but the weight training regimen may be more effective for increasing muscle mass.
Patterson, P, Sherman, J, Hitzelberger, L, Nichols, J. (1996). Test retest reliability of selected LifeCircuit machines. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 10 (4), 246 249. URL: http://www.humankinetics.com/
AB: This study was done to (a) determine the test retest reliability of selected LifeCircuit strength training machines and (b) examine the accuracy of the set up test as a percentage of 1 RM. Fifty eight subjects (28 M, 30 F) with at least 3 months strength training experience completed the study. Two testing sessions were given 3 to 7 days apart on 5 LifeCircuit weight training machines. On each day, subjects performed the set up test (a modified version of the 1 RM test) and a standard 1 RM test on each machine. Reliability of the set up test, done according to the manufacturer's protocol, was acceptable for men but only moderate for women. When the set up test was converted to percent 1 RM, the mean values for the 5 machines ranged from 50 to 67 percent for men and 45 to 56 percent for women. While these average values suggest the machines are quite accurate in calculating percent 1 RM, the range of scores was very large (20 101 percent of 1 RM). Thus the appropriate training intensity could be markedly over or underestimated. Given these variable results, it is recommended that instructors and trainers use caution when prescribing training programs
Payne, S. G. (1997). The effects of weight training on bone mineral density of premenopausal females. Microform Publications, International Institutional for Sport & Human Performance, University of Oregon, Eugene, Ore, 1997, 2 microfiches.
AB: The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of a 6 month weight training program on the bone mineral density (BMD) of premenopausal females. There were 28 experimental participants and 19 controls. BMD and body composition were measured using dual energy x ray absorptiometry (Lunar DPX). The strength training consisted of high resistance, high volume exercises which produced compression force through the vertical vector of the body. Also measured were 1 repetition maximum (RM) strength values, Insulin like Growth Factor 1 (IGF 1), and a 3 day dietary record. Multivariate analysis of covariance was used to determine if differences existed between groups in mean lumbar and femoral neck BMD. A multiple correlation was used to determine if a relationship existed between 1 RM of the back and lumbar BMD and leg press 1 RM and femoral BMD. For the experimental group, 1 RM of the back and leg press increased 25 percent and 21 percent respectively. There were no significant differences between the groups for any of the adjusted mean BMD posttest measures after the 6 month training period. No relationships were observed between 1 RM strength measures and bone mineral density at the corresponding sites. The average dietary calcium intake for both groups was 50 percent of the RDA. It is likely that a periodic change in weight lifting exercises and a RDA level of dietary calcium intake is necessary to induce significant increases in BMD. Overall, a high intensity weight training regimen for 6 months produced no significant increase in BMD in premenopausal women.
Peterson, J.A., Bryant, C.X., Peterson, S.L. (1995). Strength training for women. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers.
AB: CONTENTS: [1] Feeling strong about getting fit, [2] Organizing your program, [3] Weighing your options, [4] Free weight exercises, [5] Multistation exercises, [6] Variable resistance exercises, [7] Strength training without equipment, [8] Sample strength training workouts, [9] Strength training for sports, [10] Firming up your body: the fit look.
Pinque, T. E. (1996). Long lasting training effects: the comparison of two strength training programs. Microform Publications, International Institutional for Sport & Human Performance, University of Oregon, Eugene, Ore, 1996, 2 microfiches.
AB: This study was designed to: a) compare strength gains obtained from the Multi Set Percentage Program to the strength gains of the Descending Half Pyramid Program over an eight week training period, b) compare strength levels retained by each subject from both programs after a two week break of no weight training to determine if either program was conducive to the retention of strength gains previously acquired. Women varsity athletes at Duke University volunteered to serve as subjects for the study, (N is 13). Both strength training programs brought about significant increases in strength (p is .05), however, neither program was superior to the other. Subjects in both programs showed no significant loss in strength following the two week period of no weight training. There was an overall decrease in body fat percentage for all subjects, although not significant between programs.
Reis, E, Frick, U, Schmidtbleicher, D. (1995). Frequency variations of strength training sessions triggered by the phases of the menstrual cycle. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 16 (8), 545 550.
AB: The aim of the study was to compare the effects of two different models of altering the frequency of strength training sessions of females. The "regular training" (RT) consisted of one training unit every third day over the whole menstrual cycle. The "menstrual cycle triggered training" (MCTT) was characterized by workouts every second day in the follicular and about once per week during the luteal phase. In order to increase maximal strength (MS) the participants performed 3 sets with 12 reps each. Endogenous processes were controlled by measurements of body temperature, control of the luteinizing hormone peak, and by analysing serum hormone (estradiol, progesterone, testosterone, and cortisol) and sexual hormone binding globulin (SHBG) levels. MS and muscle cross sectional area (MCA) of the quadriceps femoris were investigated. The result of the MCTT showed a clear increase in the MS of 32.6 percent compared to 13.1 percent by the RT. Significant MCTT induced MS increase was observed during the second menstrual cycle. The ratio of MS/MCA increased by 10.5 percent (RT) and 27.6 percent (MCTT). Despite a wide interindividual variability, all subjects showed higher strength adaptations by MCTT. Additionally, we found significant correlations between different force parameters and the accumulation of estradiol. It was concluded that the MCTT seems to be more efficient compared to RT.
Simpson, S. R, Rozenek, R, Garhammer, J, Lacourse, M, Storer, T. (1997). Comparison of one repetition maximums between free weight and universal machine exercises. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 11 (2), 103 106. URL: http://www.humankinetics.com/
AB: This study was conducted to determine the relationship between performances of one repetition maximums (1 RM) of selected free weight and Universal machine exercises. Subjects, 57 young women and 67 young men, performed a 1 RM for the Universal bench press (UBP), free weight bench press (FWBP), Universal leg press (ULP), and free weight parallel squat (FWPS). Test correlations were significant for both genders: women, upper body, r = 0.95, lower body, r = 0.66, men, upper body, r = 0.94, lower body, r = 0.67. Eight regression equations were developed to predict 1 RM for UBP, FWBP, ULP, and FWPS. These equations may be useful to coaches and athletes who wish to convert to the approximate weight needed for a lift when switching from one type of resistance equipment to another.
Steinberg, J. (1996). Women and weightlifting. First Aider, 66 (2), 9.
Taunton, J. E, Martin, A. D, Rhodes, E. C, Wolski, L. A, Donelly, M, Elliot, J. (1997). Exercise for the older woman: choosing the right prescription. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 31 (1), 5 10.
AB: Many elderly women in industrially developed countries are at, or near to, functionally important strength related thresholds and so have either lost, or are in danger of losing, the ability to preform some importnat everyday tasks. The increased rate of healthcare expenditure due to loss of physical function is a major economic issue. Even though women make up most of the senior population, little current research on the impact of physical activity on strength and function in elderly people has included women. Elderly women typically have more barriers to participation in physical activity than do other groups and because of decreased participation, may possibly experience higher disability rates. Physical activity in old age may delay the progression of osteoporosis and is of paramount importance for maintaining the functional abilities needed to carry out daily tasks. Current research on exercise and the elderly population suggests that strength training may be the exercise mode of choice for maintenance of strength, physical function, bone integrity, and psychosocial health. This review summarises recent research on the impact of strength training on the fitness and health of elderly women and highlights considerations and potential barriers to physical activity that must be taken into account when planning exercise programmes for them.
Treuth, M. S, Hunter, G. R, Kekes Szabo, T, Weinsier, R. L, Goran, M. I, Berland, L. (1995). Reduction in intra abdominal adipose tissue after strength training in older women. Journal of Applied Physiology, 78 (4), 1425 1431. URL: http://www.jap.org
Treuth, M. S, Hunter, G. R, Weinsier, R. L, Kell, S. H. (1995). Energy expenditure and substrate utilization in older women after strength training: 24 h calorimeter results. Journal of Applied Physiology, 78 (6), 2140-2146. URL: http://www.jap.org
Walsh, L, Rutherford, O. M. (1996). Effects of isometric strength training on quadriceps muscle properties in over 55 year olds. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 72 (3), 219 223.
AB: Changes in strength, speed and size of the quadriceps muscle have been investigated in elderly men and women after 6 months of isometric strength training. We have also indirectly investigated the role of metabolites as a stimulus for muscle hypertrophy by studying two training protocols. One thigh was trained using short, intermittent contractions (IC), while the other trained using long, continuous contractions (CC). This meant that there should be a greater metabolite change in the muscle performing CC, as the blood flow is occluded for longer. Nine subjects (eight women, mean (SE) age, 71.8 (2.9) years) were measured for contractile properties and strength before and after training, and compared to nine age matched controls (71.5 (2.1) years). The training group increased quadriceps strength by 48.7 (9.1) percent (P is less than 0.005) and 53.1 (11.3) percent (P is less than 0.005) following the IC and CC protocols, respectively. There was no change in muscle strength in the controls. Both muscles showed significant slowing after training as measured by the relaxation times and the force frequency ratio. There were non significant decreases in muscle fatigability after training. The control group also showed some significant decreases in fatigability and muscle speed. The training group showed significant increases in muscle (and bone) cross sectional area of 4.0 (1.7) percent and 4.9 (1.3) percent following the CC and IC protocols, respectively. These increases were significantly different from the decrease observed in the control group. These findings suggest that people over the age of 55 still have the capacity to increase muscle strength and size, and that the training causes slowing of the muscle. Muscle hypertrophy does not seem to be strongly influenced by metabolite changes in this age group, as there were no differences in measurements observed between protocols
Weir, J.P., Housh, T.J., Weir, L.L., Johnson, G.O. (1995). Effects of unilateral isometric strength training on joint angle specificity and cross training. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 70 (4), 337-343.
AB: The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of unilateral isometric leg extension strength training on the strength and integrated electromyogram (IEMG) of both the trained and untrained limbs at multiple joint angles. A training (TRN) group (nine women, mean (SD) age, 20(1) years) exercised for 6 weeks with isometric leg extensions at 80 percent of maximal isometric torque. A control (CTL) group (eight women, 21(1) years) did not exercise. The training was performed three times per week on a Cybex II isokinetic dynamometer at a joint angle where the lever arm was 0.79 rad below the horizontal plane. The subjects were tested pre and posttraining for maximal unilateral isometric torque in both limbs at joint angles of zero, 0.26, 0.79, 1.31, and 1.57 rad below the horizontal plane. Bipolar surface electrodes were used to record the IEMG of the vastus lateralis (VL) and vastus medialis (VM) during the isometric tests. Three univariate (torque, IEMG VL, and IEMG VM) four way (group X time X limb X angle) mixed factorial ANOVAs were used to analyze the data. The results indicated joint angle specificity for isometric torque in the TRN group only, with significant increases in torque at 0.79 (P = 0.0004) and 1.31 (P = 0.0039) rad. No significant increases in torque were found in the untrained limb of the TRN group or in either limb of the CTL group. Similarly, there were no significant changes in IEMG as a result of the training for the VL or VM. The joint angle specific strength increases without concomitant increases in IEMG were hypothesized to result from joint angle specific decreases in antagonistic co contraction and/or preferential hypertrophy of the quadriceps femoris at specific levels of the muscle group.
White, S. (1997). Weight training for women : myths and misconceptions. Women In Sport, 3 (1), 74 75.
Wojtys, E. M, Huston, L. J, Taylor, P. D, Bastian, S. D. (1996). Neuromuscular adaptations in isokinetic, isotonic, and agility training programs. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 24 (2), 187 192.
AB: Weight training is an integral part of most athletic conditioning programs, yet, the effect of these programs on neuromuscular function remains unclear. To examine the neuromuscular effects of training and conditioning at the knee joint, 32 volunteers (16 men and 16 women, average age, 25.4 years) were placed into one of four groups: isokinetic, isotonic, agility, or control. Each group trained 3 days per week for 6 weeks. The knee function of all participants was evaluated just before and after the 6 week training period. The agility trained group significantly improved the spinal reflex times of the lateral and medial quadriceps muscles in response to anterior tibial translation. The cortical response time of the agility group also significantly improved in the gastrocnemius, medial hamstring, and the lateral quadriceps muscles. Interestingly, the cortical response time of the medial hamstring and the medial quadriceps muscles in the isokinetic group slowed significantly, by 39.1 and 32.4 msec, respectively, after 6 weeks of training. Isotonic and isokinetic strength training of the lower extemities do not appear to improve muscle reaction time to anterior tibial translation, whereas agility exercises potentially improve this parameter.